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White-fronted Chat (Epthianura albifrons)

The White-fronted Chat is a small Australian honeyeater of saltmarsh, estuaries, damp grassland and other open habitats with low vegetation. It is Vulnerable in New South Wales, where clearing, wetland modification, fragmentation, disturbance and predation can affect breeding and feeding habitat on development sites.

Conservation status

New South Wales, Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016: Vulnerable.

Breeding season

The timing below represents a typical pattern rather than a fixed calendar for every population. Breeding can begin in late July and continue to early March, while movement is mostly local, seasonal or irregular rather than migratory.

Inspect low vegetation and wetland margins before clearing in every month because breeding timing varies with habitat and rainfall, and breeding has been recorded outside the usual August to January period.

  • Breeding, pair formation and laying: Pairs form towards the end of winter. Breeding is generally August to January, with records from late July to early March.
  • Young in nest or dependent: The complete nesting cycle from nest-building to independent young is approximately 50 days. A second clutch may follow immediately after the first becomes independent.
  • Local movement and flocking: Birds are resident in many areas but may be nomadic or irregular, especially inland. Flocks of up to 50 are particularly associated with the non-breeding period in autumn and winter, and temporary insect outbreaks can attract flocks at other times.
  • Highest clearing risk: Clearing or disturbance is most likely to harm the species from late July through January, when nests, eggs and dependent young may be present. Risk can extend into February and early March because breeding has been recorded during that period.

Identification

White-fronted Chats are small, plump, ground-feeding honeyeaters with a short square-tipped tail, rounded wings, long slender legs and a short slender bill. They are often detected by their short nasal call and by running across bare or grassy ground in open wetlands.

The male has a white face, breast and belly, with a distinctive black band across the breast that continues around the back of the head. The upperparts are mostly light grey, with faint dark brown streaking. The female has the same general pattern in grey-brown and off-white, with a narrower breast band. Immatures resemble females and usually have a very faint or absent breast band.

The species is readily separated from the Orange, Yellow and Crimson Chats by its black and white male plumage and white-fronted pattern. Its small size, long legs, short tail and habit of running on the ground help distinguish it from thornbills and other small birds in saltmarsh.

Length: 11 to 13 cm

Weight: Approximately 13 g

Call: A short nasal or metallic tang, often repeated as tang, tang

Identification: Field signs

The most useful field signs are the birds themselves, their short tang calls and their low, ground-level feeding behaviour. They often occur singly, in pairs or in small flocks, with flocks of around 20 birds and occasional flocks of up to 50 recorded.

Nests are open cups made from coarse dried grass or plant stems, lined with fine grass, thin roots, feathers or animal hair. They are usually concealed in low shrubs or grasses, with a mean height of about 23 cm above the ground, although nests have occasionally been recorded up to 2.5 m high.

  • Search low saltmarsh shrubs, grasses and isolated low mangroves for small open-cup nests.
  • Listen for the short tang call, including when birds are flying between feeding areas.
  • Treat repeated sightings of adults carrying nesting material or food as an indication of a nearby nest or dependent young.

Identification: Sex, age and behaviour

Males have stronger black and white contrast than females. Females and immatures are greyer and browner, and immatures generally have a less distinct breast band. During breeding, pairs form from late winter, while birds may continue to feed in small flocks.

The species is gregarious outside the breeding period and may gather where insect numbers temporarily increase. It does not normally form mixed-species flocks.

Distribution: National range

The White-fronted Chat occurs across southern Australia, including Tasmania, with a range from southern Queensland through New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Western Australia. It is mainly associated with temperate to arid areas and low elevations, and is very uncommon in subtropical areas.

The documented range extends from the southernmost areas of Queensland, through New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia, to southern Tasmania and Western Australia as far north as Carnarvon or Shark Bay. It has also been recorded in the Australian Capital Territory.

In New South Wales, records are concentrated in the southern half of the state, especially damp open coastal habitats and inland waterways, rivers, salt lakes and saltpans. The supplied documents do not identify additional named Australian bioregions for the full national range. Coastal saltmarsh in the NSW North Coast, Sydney Basin and South East Corner Bioregions is identified as preferred habitat.

  • States and territories documented in the supplied sources are Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia, Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory.
  • Inland records are associated with open grassy plains, salt lakes, saltpans, rivers and waterways.
  • Coastal records are associated with estuaries, saltmarsh, marshy ground, beaches and lake margins.

Distribution: Subpopulations and trend

The species is resident in some areas, but seasonal, irregular or nomadic movements occur elsewhere, particularly in drier inland areas. There is no evidence of regular long-distance migration.

In the Sydney region, the former broad distribution has contracted to two small wetland populations in Botany Bay and on the Parramatta River. In the Eurobodalla, recurring records include Brou and Coila Lakes and the Tuross estuary, with other records at Tilba, Wallaga Lakes, Long Swamp, Corunna Lake, Mystery Bay and Durras.

National reporting-rate change: 36% decline between 1977 to 1981 and 1998 to 2002, equivalent to an estimated 21% decline over the most recent 10-year period assessed at that time

NSW atlas reporting-rate change: 52% decline between 1977 to 1981 and 1998 to 2002, equivalent to an estimated 35% decline over the most recent 10-year period assessed at that time

NSW longer-term change: 38% decline in reporting rates between 1981 and 2006, including a 33% decline over the last 10 years of that period

Known Sydney populations: Two small wetland populations, in Botany Bay and on the Parramatta River

Home-site fidelity: Mark-recapture studies reported all recaptures within 5 km in Victoria and within 2 km in Western Australia

Estimated lifespan: Approximately 5 years in the wild

Generation time: Approximately 3 years

Habitat: Habitat types

White-fronted Chats require open, damp habitats with low vegetation and exposed or lightly vegetated ground. They are strongly associated with wetlands and are not generally found in built-up urban habitats.

Core habitat includes coastal saltmarsh, estuarine marshes, damp open ground, the margins of lakes and freshwater wetlands, swampy farmland, open grassland and low shrubland. Inland habitat includes open grassy plains, salt lakes and saltpans along rivers and waterways.

Other recorded habitats include sandy beaches, coastal dunes, roadside verges, recreation sites, heath, woodland and open forest during the early stages after fire or clearing, when vegetation remains low.

  • Retain saltmarsh, wetland margins, damp grassland and low shrubland within and beside the work area.
  • Inspect open wetland edges and low vegetation, not only dense vegetation or trees.
  • Treat recently burnt or cleared areas with regenerating low vegetation as potential habitat where they adjoin wetlands or other damp open ground.

Habitat: Structure and environmental limits

Preferred vegetation is generally less than 1 m tall in coastal marshes and estuarine areas. Important habitat may include low saltmarsh plants, open grassland, lightly timbered land and low shrubs bordering water.

The species occurs mostly below 1000 m above sea level, in temperate to arid climates. It is very rarely seen in subtropical areas. Wetland condition and the availability of open ground are likely to be more important on a project site than mature trees or dense forest cover.

Typical coastal vegetation height: Less than 1 m

Recorded elevation range: Foothills and lowlands below 1000 m above sea level

Climate range: Mostly temperate to arid; very rarely subtropical

  • Map low vegetation, open ground, shallow wet areas, saltmarsh and waterbody margins before clearing.
  • Avoid assuming that apparently degraded or sparsely vegetated wetland margins have low fauna value.
  • Maintain links between wetland patches and adjacent open grassland or lightly timbered land where practicable.

Foraging habitat: Diet

White-fronted Chats feed mainly on small invertebrates on or close to the ground. They select open wetland and grassland patches where low vegetation, bare ground and temporary concentrations of insects are available.

The main food is small insects, usually less than 5 mm long. Recorded prey includes midges, kelp-flies, plant bugs, beetles, flies, ants, bees, caterpillars, moths, grasshoppers and spiders.

The species may also take seeds, nectar or fruit, but it does not feed mainly on nectar despite having the brush-tipped tongue typical of honeyeaters.

Typical prey size: Usually less than 5 mm

Main prey groups: Flies, beetles, bugs, midges, kelp-flies, ants, bees, caterpillars, moths, grasshoppers and spiders

Foraging habitat: Foraging method and sites

Birds run along bare or grassy ground and pick up prey from the surface and low vegetation. They also take insects from low shrubs, shallow water and the air, usually close to the ground.

Foraging flocks of around 20 birds may gather at temporary insect outbreaks. Birds can occur singly or in pairs, and larger flocks of up to 50 are more typical outside the breeding season.

Typical flock size: Around 20 birds at temporary insect outbreaks

Larger non-breeding flocks: Up to 50 birds

Foraging height: Mainly ground level and low vegetation, with occasional shallow-water and low aerial feeding

  • Retain open feeding areas beside saltmarsh, wetland margins, low grassland and low shrubland.
  • Avoid sealing, grading or heavily compacting bare and sparsely vegetated ground used beside wetlands.
  • Keep insect-producing wetland vegetation and shallow-water margins connected to nearby open ground.
  • During fauna checks, scan the ground and low vegetation as well as the air and canopy.

Breeding habitat: Breeding biology

Breeding occurs in low vegetation within or beside wetlands, saltmarsh and other open habitats. Pairs may nest close together, but each male defends a small nest-site area during at least part of the breeding period.

Pairs form towards the end of winter while birds continue to feed in flocks. The female builds the open cup nest while the male guards her closely. Both sexes share incubation and feeding of the young.

Nests are usually placed in low shrubs or grasses, especially saltmarsh plants such as Sclerostegia arbuscula, Suaeda australis and Sarcocornia quinqueflora. Nests have also been recorded in low isolated mangroves and occasionally on the ground. Loose nesting colonies may have nests about 5 m apart.

A second clutch may be laid at a different site after the first brood becomes independent. Individually marked birds have been recorded re-nesting up to five times in one season after failed clutches.

Breeding season: Usually August to January; observations extend from late July to early March

Clutch size: Usually 2 to 3 eggs; reported range 2 to 4, with an average of 2.75 in one NSW determination

Nest construction: Open cup of coarse dried grass or plant stems, lined with fine dried grass, thin fibrous roots, feathers or animal hair

Mean nest height: Approximately 23 cm above ground

Incubation: 13 to 14 days

Nestling period: Approximately 10 to 15 days of feeding after hatching

Complete nesting cycle: Approximately 50 days from nest-building to independent young

Age at maturity: Birds can breed at one year of age

Lifespan: Estimated at approximately 5 years in the wild

Generation time: Approximately 3 years

  • Inspect low shrubs, saltmarsh vegetation, grasses and isolated low mangroves before clearing or ground disturbance.
  • Use a suitably qualified fauna ecologist to assess active nesting where adults show territorial, alarm or nest-building behaviour.
  • Protect the nest and the surrounding low vegetation from vehicle movement, stockpiling, earthworks and repeated personnel access during the breeding period.

Breeding habitat: Breeding-site features

Breeding habitat is low, open and close to feeding ground. Suitable sites include saltmarsh and damp open ground with grasses or low shrubs, including vegetation bordering estuaries, lakes, rivers and other wetlands.

Nests may be only about 5 m apart in loose colonies, so a single nest observation can indicate additional nests nearby. The low nest height makes nests and young susceptible to trampling, machinery, vehicles and ground predators.

  • Search beyond the first nest found because additional nests may occur within about 5 m.
  • Include low vegetation and adjacent open feeding ground in any nest protection area.
  • Avoid changing drainage, surface water or access conditions around breeding habitat during the breeding period.

Sheltering habitat: Roosting and cover

The species does not use dens, tree hollows or burrows. Shelter and roosting opportunities are provided mainly by low vegetation, wetland edges and flocking behaviour.

White-fronted Chats feed and roost in small flocks outside the breeding period. Available information identifies low shrubs, grasses, saltmarsh vegetation and wetland margins as the relevant cover, but does not provide a standard roost height, roost size or required refuge area.

During breeding, the nest provides shelter for eggs and young. Nests are usually low, with a mean height of about 23 cm, and may occasionally be placed on the ground or up to 2.5 m above ground.

Typical nest height: Mean approximately 23 cm above ground

Recorded nest height range: Occasionally on the ground and up to 2.5 m above ground

Loose colony spacing: Nests may be approximately 5 m apart

  • Retain connected patches of low shrubs, grasses and saltmarsh around wetland margins.
  • Keep machinery, vehicles, lighting and repeated pedestrian movement away from low vegetation used for roosting or nesting.
  • Do not remove isolated low mangroves, low shrubs or grass clumps solely because they are not mature trees.

Threats: Clearing and development

The main project risks are loss and fragmentation of damp open habitat, disturbance of low breeding sites, changes to wetland hydrology and increased access for predators. The species is sensitive to human disturbance and does not persist well in built-up urban areas.

Clearing, draining and filling of swamps for housing, industry, roads and infrastructure have removed or degraded habitat. Coastal populations can become isolated in small saltmarsh remnants, increasing their exposure to local loss and other random events.

Clearing can remove both feeding ground and low nesting vegetation. Because nests are close to the ground, apparently minor ground disturbance can destroy eggs or dependent young.

  • Avoid clearing saltmarsh, wetland margins, damp grassland and low shrubland wherever practicable.
  • Fence exclusion areas before machinery or earthworks enter the site.
  • Stage clearing from open habitat towards retained habitat only where a fauna ecologist confirms that this will not push birds into unsuitable or dangerous areas.
  • Do not use the absence of trees as evidence that an area is unsuitable habitat.

Threats: Hydrology, fragmentation and disturbance

Modification of river flows, floodplains and wetlands can alter the open wetland conditions used for feeding and breeding. Coastal urbanisation has fragmented populations, while mangrove encroachment can reduce open saltmarsh habitat.

The species is sensitive to human disturbance and is not found in built areas. Roads, construction traffic, lighting, noise and regular access can reduce the value of small wetland remnants even where vegetation is retained.

  • Maintain natural wetland inflows, drainage patterns and water levels where practicable.
  • Prevent sediment, contaminated runoff and construction fill from entering saltmarsh, estuary and wetland habitat.
  • Keep roads, compounds, laydown areas and repeated access routes out of retained open wetland habitat.
  • Retain movement links between wetland patches and adjacent open grassland or lightly timbered land.

Threats: Predators and other pressures

Low nests are vulnerable to snakes and mammals, particularly feral cats, European Red Foxes and rodents, as well as birds including ravens. Predator abundance may be higher near human settlement.

Climate change and associated sea-level rise may reduce coastal saltmarsh habitat. The supplied documents do not identify a species-specific disease as a major threat.

  • Do not leave food waste, shelter or other attractants that may increase fox, cat, rodent or raven activity near breeding habitat.
  • Apply approved feral animal and pest management measures where they are part of the project environmental management plan.
  • Avoid disturbance around active nests because repeated flushing can expose eggs and young to predators.
  • Consider future inundation and saltmarsh change when locating permanent infrastructure near coastal wetlands.

Survey methodology: 1. Daytime habitat and presence searches

Survey this species as a low, open wetland and saltmarsh bird. Focus on damp open areas with vegetation below 1 m, wetland margins, saltmarsh, open grassland, salt lakes, saltpans, beaches and swampy farmland. The supplied documents do not provide a formal survey guideline with prescribed effort, transect spacing or detection probabilities, so the project ecologist must set effort to suit the site, proposed impact and approval conditions.

Map all damp, open habitat within and near the disturbance footprint before finalising the work area.

Walk the wetland margin, saltmarsh, open grassland, low shrubland, lake edge, beach and roadside habitats during daylight.

Record all White-fronted Chats, flock size, behaviour, direction of movement, feeding areas, roosting areas and any breeding activity.

Search bare or grassy ground and low vegetation because the species usually forages on the ground or catches insects close to the ground.

Typical body length: 11 to 13 cm

Typical flock size: Around 20 birds, with flocks of up to 50 birds reported

Preferred vegetation height: Usually less than 1 m in coastal marsh and estuarine habitat

Survey methodology: 2. Repeated wetland-edge observations

Repeat observations where the species is absent on the first visit because flocks can gather temporarily when insects are abundant, and records can be seasonal or irregular in some areas.

Survey during the breeding period, especially from August to January, when pairs may be present and nests may occur in low shrubs or grasses.

Include autumn and winter visits where practicable because the species commonly forms small feeding and roosting flocks during the non-breeding season.

Use quiet observation points or slow walks along the edge of suitable habitat, and avoid flushing birds repeatedly from feeding or nesting areas.

Breeding period reported by the Australian Museum: August to January

Breeding period reported in the NSW determination: Late July to early March

Nest spacing where loose colonies occur: As close as 5 m apart

Survey methodology: 3. Breeding and nest searches

Inspect suitable low vegetation from a distance before entering saltmarsh or other breeding habitat.

Look for open-cup nests made from coarse grass or plant stems and lined with fine grass, roots or animal hair.

Search low shrubs and grasses, particularly salt-tolerant plants such as Sclerostegia arbuscula, Suaeda australis and Sarcocornia quinqueflora, where these plants occur on the site.

Treat any suspected nest as occupied until the ecologist confirms otherwise, and establish a site-specific no-entry area that prevents disturbance.

Usual clutch size: 2 or 3 eggs

Mean nest height reported in the NSW determination: 23 cm above ground

Occasional nest height: Up to 2.5 m above ground

Approximate nesting cycle: About 50 days from nest building to independent young

Survey methodology: Minimum effort and reporting

  • Set the number, timing and duration of survey visits from the area of suitable habitat, the proposed clearing footprint, the likely disturbance pathway and the consequences of a missed breeding site.
  • Document survey dates, start and finish times, weather, tide or water conditions where relevant, observers, route or observation points, habitat condition, survey effort and detection limitations.
  • Submit confirmed records, including negative results where required by the data provider, to the relevant state wildlife database or fauna atlas, such as the NSW wildlife records system for NSW projects.
  • Report the location of all sightings, nests, flocks and important feeding or roosting areas using project mapping coordinates.
  • Do not claim that the species is absent solely because it was not detected on one visit.

Before habitat disturbance: Avoid and minimise habitat loss

Avoid disturbing the small, open wetland habitats used by White-fronted Chats. The species is habitat specific, sensitive to human disturbance and does not persist in built areas, so prevention is preferable to relying on relocation.

Redesign the footprint to retain saltmarsh, damp open ground, wetland margins, salt lakes, saltpans, open grassland and low shrubland.

Retain connected areas of suitable open habitat around wetlands and waterways rather than leaving isolated patches surrounded by construction or urban land.

Avoid changing river flows, floodplain inundation or wetland water regimes that maintain the species’ feeding habitat.

Keep vehicle routes, stockpiles, compounds, lighting and pedestrian access out of retained feeding, roosting and nesting areas.

Known habitat types: Saltmarsh, damp open areas, swampy farmland, roadside verges, beaches and lake edges

Additional inland habitat: Open grassy plains, salt lakes and saltpans along rivers and waterways

Before habitat disturbance: Approvals and project planning

Confirm the current state conservation status, permit requirements and development approval conditions before work starts.

The species is listed as Vulnerable in NSW and is not listed under the EPBC Act according to the supplied project information; check the current Commonwealth list and make an EPBC referral if another protected matter or a listing change requires it.

Obtain any required state scientific, threatened species, wildlife handling and animal ethics approvals before survey, capture or relocation.

Prepare a fauna management plan that identifies retained habitat, survey timing, exclusion areas, authorised handlers, stop-work triggers, incident contacts and reporting requirements.

Before habitat disturbance: Prepare the site

Complete a pre-clearance inspection of all suitable wetland and open habitat shortly before disturbance, with additional breeding checks where work falls between late July and early March.

Mark retained saltmarsh, wetland margins, low vegetation, nests, feeding areas, access routes and exclusion zones on plans and on the ground.

Install exclusion fencing where it can keep machinery, vehicles and workers out of retained habitat without blocking normal bird movement between retained areas.

Brief all workers that a small black, white and grey bird with a distinctive breast band may occur singly, in pairs or in flocks, and that any suspected nest must be reported immediately.

Adult size: About 12 cm and approximately 13 g

Key field mark: Male has a white face, breast and belly with a black band across the breast and around the back of the head

During habitat disturbance: Daily controls and spotter catcher duties

Keep disturbance within the approved footprint and maintain a clear chain of communication between the fauna spotter catcher, site supervisor and machinery operators. Stop work when a bird, nest or unapproved impact is identified.

Inspect exclusion fencing, signs and retained habitat at the start of each workday and after heavy rain, flooding, vehicle damage or movement of plant.

Use a suitably authorised fauna spotter catcher where required by approval conditions or the fauna management plan.

Position the spotter catcher so they can see the active work area, the edge of retained wetland habitat and any low vegetation being disturbed.

Direct machinery in short stages, maintain radio or visual contact with the operator, and stop the machine before the spotter catcher enters the exclusion zone or approaches an animal.

Keep workers, vehicles, lighting, noise and spoil outside retained habitat and avoid repeated flushing of birds from feeding or nesting areas.

During habitat disturbance: If a White-fronted Chat is found

Tell the operator to stop or withdraw from the immediate area and allow the bird to move away without pursuit.

Do not catch or handle an adult bird unless handling is necessary to prevent immediate harm and the person is authorised under the project approvals.

If a nest, eggs or dependent young are found, stop work around the site and have the ecologist define an exclusion area and re-entry conditions.

Use nearby retained habitat for any approved relocation only when the authorised ecologist determines that relocation is necessary and suitable.

Take an injured bird to an appropriately experienced veterinarian or licensed wildlife carer through the project’s approved wildlife-care process.

During habitat disturbance: Habitat features and stop-work triggers

Do not remove low shrubs, saltmarsh plants or wetland-edge vegetation identified as nesting or feeding habitat until the ecologist has checked the area.

Treat an occupied nest, dependent young, repeated flock concentration, injured bird, bird trapped inside the work area or damage to retained wetland habitat as a stop-work trigger.

Stop work if machinery enters an exclusion area, erosion or sediment reaches retained wetland habitat, water flow is altered outside the approved design, or the work footprint expands.

Record the event, location, time, people involved, action taken, animal outcome and approval reference before work resumes.

Escalate any unexpected impact, mortality, nest damage or unapproved clearing to the project manager and relevant regulator as required by the approval.

After habitat disturbance: Post-clearance inspection

Post-clearance checks must confirm that the approved footprint was followed and that retained wetland habitat remains usable. The ecologist should continue checks where disturbance could affect breeding, feeding access or wetland condition.

Inspect the completed work area and all retained habitat for injured or dead birds, damaged nests, displaced fencing, sediment, weeds, altered drainage and unauthorised vegetation removal.

Recheck the edges of the disturbance footprint for White-fronted Chats, especially where low vegetation, bare ground or wetland margins remain.

Confirm that access tracks, stockpiles, lighting and temporary facilities have not extended into retained habitat.

Remove temporary controls only when the site supervisor and ecologist confirm that they are no longer needed and that birds can move safely through the retained area.

After habitat disturbance: Monitoring and reporting

Monitor retained habitat during the breeding period where the project has removed or fragmented suitable habitat, or where approval conditions require monitoring.

Use the same observation areas and recording method on repeat visits so that changes in presence, flock size, feeding use and breeding activity can be compared.

Report the completed footprint, habitat retained and lost, survey results, incidents, animal handling, nest outcomes, rehabilitation status and any corrective actions to the approval authority.

Submit verified occurrence records to the relevant state wildlife database and retain photographs, coordinates, field sheets and fauna-handler records in the project file.

Useful monitoring observations: Presence, flock size, feeding areas, breeding activity, habitat condition and disturbance response

Known local movement pattern: Many birds are resident or sedentary, but some areas show nomadic, seasonal or irregular movements

After habitat disturbance: Maintain controls and offsets

Maintain exclusion fencing, weed controls, sediment controls, drainage controls and access restrictions until rehabilitation is established and the ecologist signs off the area.

Apply any approved offset or conservation measure where residual impacts cannot be avoided or minimised.

Use the project approval and current state requirements to determine whether an offset, biodiversity credit, habitat restoration commitment or additional monitoring is required.

Review the management response if the retained area becomes isolated, overgrown, urbanised, repeatedly disturbed or unsuitable for ground foraging.

Rehabilitation actions: Restore suitable wetland habitat

Rehabilitation should restore open, damp habitat with low vegetation and safe access to wetland feeding areas. Avoid creating dense vegetation or built edges that remove the open conditions used by White-fronted Chats.

Reinstate wetland hydrology and shallow wet areas where the project has altered drainage, subject to the approved design and water-quality requirements.

Replant or allow regeneration of locally appropriate saltmarsh and low wetland plants, including species such as Sarcocornia quinqueflora, Suaeda australis and Sclerostegia arbuscula where they are part of the local plant community.

Maintain a mosaic of low vegetation and bare or lightly grassed ground for running and ground foraging.

Do not allow revegetation, weed growth, infrastructure or fencing to close the open margins needed for movement between feeding areas.

Nest plants recorded in the NSW determination: Sclerostegia arbuscula, Suaeda australis and Sarcocornia quinqueflora

Typical coastal vegetation height: Less than 1 m

Rehabilitation actions: Manage threats at the rehabilitated site

Control weeds that replace saltmarsh, low grassland or open wetland margins, using methods that do not disturb active nests or contaminate wetland habitat.

Manage feral cats, foxes and rodents in accordance with approved legal and humane control programs because ground-level nests are vulnerable to these predators.

Limit people, dogs, vehicles and other disturbance near retained or restored wetland habitat.

Use fire only under an approved ecological fire plan, and avoid burning during the local breeding period or when it would remove all low cover from feeding and nesting areas.

Rehabilitation actions: Monitor rehabilitation success

Inspect restored areas for wetland function, low vegetation structure, weed cover, erosion, predator activity and access by birds.

Repeat daytime bird observations during and outside the breeding period, recording presence, flock size, feeding behaviour, nesting activity and use of restored areas.

Set success measures before works begin, including establishment of the approved wetland plant community, retention of open low vegetation, stable wetland margins and no ongoing unauthorised disturbance.

Repair failed planting, drainage, fencing or erosion controls when monitoring shows that the restored area is not providing suitable open wetland habitat.

Sources