White-eared Monarch (Carterornis leucotis)

Conservation status

New South Wales, Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016: Vulnerable.

Breeding season

The following pattern combines the reported August or September to January or March breeding period with observations of possible altitudinal movement in south-eastern Queensland. Timing may vary between coastal and highland sites.

The species is primarily sedentary, and no large-scale migration is known. Seasonal movement evidence is strongest for south-eastern Queensland and should not be applied as a confirmed pattern across the entire range.

• Breeding: Breeding is generally reported from August or September to January or March. September to January is shown as the likely peak period, with activity potentially extending into August, February and March.
• Young: Dependent young are not assigned a separate documented fledging period. This row represents the likely period of nestlings or recently fledged young associated with the August to March breeding season.
• Movement or dispersal: In south-eastern Queensland, records suggest that birds may leave high-altitude areas during winter, winter on the coast and return to the ranges to breed. Some post-breeding movement from highlands to lowlands is also reported.
• Highest clearing risk: Clearing is most likely to harm the species from August to March because nests, incubating adults and dependent young may be present. September to February is marked as the highest risk period, while August and March remain elevated.

Identification

The White-eared Monarch is a small, active monarch flycatcher with strongly contrasting black-and-white plumage. It is often easier to locate by its call than by sight because it forages high in the outer canopy.

Adults are about 14 cm long. The head is black with bold white patches around the ears and above the eye. White wing panels and a white rump contrast with the black upperparts.

Prominent bristles surround the bill. When alarmed or excited, the bird may raise the forehead and crown feathers, cock the tail and rapidly spread the wings.

Length: About 14 cm.

Key plumage: Black head and upperparts with white ear and eyebrow patches, wing panels and rump.

Identification: Calls and field signs

The species has a distinctive downward three-note whistle and also gives plaintive two-note calls. It may be heard from rainforest canopy, rainforest margins or creekside vegetation before it is seen.

No tracks, scats, sloughs or eyeshine are relevant field signs for this bird. The main non-visual signs are its calls and its deep cup nest, which can have a whitish appearance because of the pale nesting materials.

• Listen for the downward three-note whistle and plaintive two-note call before attempting canopy observations.
• Search the outer canopy and taller shrubs after locating a calling bird.

Identification: Nest identification

The nest is a deep cup made from moss, grass, bark strips, plant fibres and spider webs. It is usually built high in the outer foliage of the canopy, but may be lower in shrubs.

Both sexes take part in nest building and likely incubation. The supplied documents do not provide measurements for the nest, eggs or clutch, or diagnostic differences between the sexes.

• Treat a deep cup nest in outer canopy foliage or a shrub as a potential White-eared Monarch nest only when supported by an adult bird or call identification.
• Avoid disturbing suspected nests during the August to March breeding period.

Distribution: State range

The White-eared Monarch occurs along Australia's eastern coastline, mainly in Queensland and extending into far north-eastern New South Wales. The supplied documents do not provide a mapped national distribution, bioregion names, population estimate or population trend.

The main Australian range is in coastal and near-coastal Queensland, extending south into far north-eastern New South Wales. Records are reported as far south as Iluka and occasionally Port Macquarie.

The species is listed as Vulnerable in New South Wales and is not listed under the EPBC Act, according to the supplied listing information.

Queensland: Primary Australian range, along the eastern coastline.

New South Wales: Far north-east, south to Iluka and occasionally Port Macquarie.

Bioregions: Not specified in the supplied documents.

Distribution: Strongholds and population information

The documents identify lowland and coastal rainforests, vine forests and remnant dry rainforest as the main occupied habitats, but do not identify named strongholds, discrete subpopulations or population boundaries.

No population size or trend is provided. A BirdLife account suggests that birds in south-eastern Queensland may move between high-altitude breeding areas and coastal wintering areas.

Population size: Not stated.

Population trend: Not stated.

Subpopulations: Not stated.

Habitat: Habitat types

The species is associated mainly with rainforest and wetter forest along the eastern coast. It also uses several adjoining or structurally similar vegetation types, especially where streams, wet vegetation and forest margins provide insect-rich canopy habitat.

Recorded habitats include lowland and coastal rainforest, vine forest, remnant dry rainforest, wet and dry sclerophyll forest, paperbark swamp, mangrove and eucalypt woodland near streams.

Birds are most often reported in the outer canopy of rainforest margins or creekside vegetation.

• Retain rainforest margins, creekside vegetation and mature outer-canopy foliage where works are proposed.
• Survey adjoining wet sclerophyll, paperbark, mangrove and eucalypt vegetation where it is connected to rainforest or occurs near streams.

Habitat: Structure and climate

The species uses tall outer foliage for foraging and places nests in outer canopy foliage or sometimes in lower shrubs. These observations indicate that canopy height, foliage density and forest edge structure are relevant habitat features.

The supplied documents describe a coastal to highland distribution and possible seasonal movement between high-altitude areas and the coast, but do not provide elevation limits, temperature limits or rainfall thresholds.

Elevation limits: Not stated; highland and coastal use is reported.

Key structure: Outer canopy foliage, rainforest margins, creekside vegetation and occasional lower shrubs.

Foraging habitat: Diet and feeding method

White-eared Monarchs are insectivorous flycatchers that forage actively in foliage and branches, especially in the outer canopy. They may also capture prey during short aerial pursuits.

The diet is described as insects. Birds glean insects from foliage and branches and sometimes hawk prey in flight.

Prominent bill bristles are associated with its flycatching form, while its active foraging style can make it conspicuous when it moves through the outer canopy.

Main prey: Insects.

Feeding methods: Gleaning from foliage and branches, and hawking prey in flight.

• Inspect the outer canopy, rainforest margins and creekside foliage for active foraging birds.
• Watch for short flights from foliage to intercept flying insects.

Foraging habitat: Foraging habitat

Important foraging settings include lowland and coastal rainforest, vine forest, remnant dry rainforest and wetter forest edges. The species may also use wet or dry sclerophyll forest, paperbark swamp, mangrove and eucalypt woodland, particularly near streams.

No food plant species, foraging territory size, flight distance or home-range estimate is provided.

Foraging range: Not stated.

Food plants: No specific food plants are identified.

• Map connected rainforest margins and creekside vegetation as potential foraging habitat before clearing.
• Include nearby wet forest, paperbark, mangrove and eucalypt vegetation in habitat checks where it is close to rainforest or streams.

Breeding habitat: Breeding biology

Breeding occurs mainly from late winter or early spring through summer. Nests are placed in foliage, usually high in the outer canopy, although lower shrub nesting is also reported.

Both sexes participate in nest building and likely incubation. The supplied documents do not state clutch size, incubation period, age at maturity or lifespan.

The breeding period is reported variously as August or September to January or March, so breeding activity may extend from August to March.

Breeding season: Generally August or September to January or March.

Nest type: Deep cup made from moss, grass, bark strips, plant fibres and spider webs.

Clutch size: Not stated.

Incubation period: Not stated; both sexes likely incubate.

Age at maturity: Not stated.

Lifespan: Not stated.

Breeding habitat: Breeding habitat features

Breeding habitat includes rainforest, vine forest and remnant dry rainforest, with nests usually in high outer-canopy foliage. Nests may also occur lower in shrubs.

Retaining canopy foliage, forest margins and suitable shrubs around creekside vegetation reduces the chance of destroying an active nest during clearing.

• Check outer canopy foliage and taller shrubs for nests before vegetation removal.
• Use an appropriately qualified fauna spotter catcher where a nest or breeding bird is detected, and apply the approved site procedure for exclusion or staged clearing.

Sheltering habitat: Known cover

The supplied documents do not describe roost trees, hollows, cavities, nests used outside breeding, or other dedicated shelter sites. The species is nevertheless associated with dense forest foliage and may use canopy or shrub cover while moving and foraging.

The species is most often seen or heard in the outer canopy of rainforest margins and creekside vegetation. It may also use lower shrubs, including for nest placement.

No dimensions are given for shelter sites, trees, hollows, roosts or ground cover.

Hollows or burrows: Not reported.

Roost sites: Not reported.

Shelter dimensions: Not stated.

• Retain connected canopy and shrub cover where possible during clearing and construction.
• Inspect rainforest margins, creekside vegetation and shrubs for birds before disturbance, including areas below the main canopy.

Sheltering habitat: Site practice

Because the species may be heard before it is seen and can forage high in the canopy, ground-level searches alone will not reliably identify all occupied habitat.

The supplied documents do not specify a roosting season or a species-specific response to night works, artificial light or noise. Apply project controls for native birds where these hazards are identified.

• Include canopy observations and call playback only where permitted by the survey method and approval conditions.
• Do not assume that an apparently empty ground layer means the site is unused by this canopy-foraging species.

Threats: Clearing and fragmentation

The supplied documents identify habitat use but do not provide a formal threat assessment. For development projects, the clearest species-specific risk is removal of rainforest, wetter forest, creekside vegetation or canopy foliage used for foraging and nesting.

Clearing lowland or coastal rainforest, vine forest, remnant dry rainforest and creekside vegetation can remove feeding and nesting habitat. Loss of outer-canopy foliage is particularly relevant because the species forages and usually nests there.

The supplied documents do not quantify the effect of fragmentation or identify a minimum patch size, corridor width or threshold distance.

• Avoid clearing rainforest margins, creekside vegetation and outer-canopy foliage where practicable.
• Retain links between rainforest and adjacent wetter forest, especially where the link follows a stream or drainage line.

Threats: Breeding disturbance

Clearing between August and March may destroy nests or disturb adults while they are building nests, incubating or caring for young. The breeding period varies among accounts within this range.

A deep cup nest may be difficult to detect high in the canopy, so pre-clearance checks should include canopy observations and call-based searches.

• Schedule vegetation removal outside the likely August to March breeding period where practicable.
• If clearing during the breeding period is unavoidable, inspect canopy foliage and shrubs immediately before works and follow the project's nest protection procedure.

Threats: Other pressures

The supplied documents do not identify species-specific effects of roads, fire, introduced predators, disease, altered hydrology, noise, artificial light or vehicle strike.

Where a project affects streams, wetlands, mangroves, paperbark swamps or rainforest edges, assess indirect changes to vegetation and insect habitat as part of the environmental assessment.

• Do not claim that roads, fire, predators, disease or hydrology change are documented threats for this species without additional evidence.
• Record any observed mortality, nest failure or habitat change and refer the record to the project ecologist or relevant state authority.

Survey methodology: 1. Diurnal bird surveys

Survey effort should reflect the White-eared Monarch’s use of rainforest, vine forest, wet forest and creekside vegetation, where it often forages in the outer canopy and may be detected by its calls before it is seen. The available species information does not provide a species-specific survey guideline or minimum effort, so the project ecologist should apply the relevant state survey guideline and document the basis for the chosen effort.

Survey retained rainforest, vine forest, wet and dry sclerophyll forest, paperbark swamp, mangrove and creekside vegetation that could be used by the species.

Use repeated searches from ground level and suitable vantage points, concentrating on rainforest margins, outer canopy and vegetation near streams.

Record all visual and auditory detections, including the distinctive downward three-note whistle and plaintive two-note calls.

The species is about 14 cm long, has bold black-and-white plumage, and may be more readily heard than seen in dense vegetation.

Body length: About 14 cm

Key detection habitats: Rainforest margins, outer canopy and creekside vegetation

Calls: Downward three-note whistle or plaintive two-note calls

• Conduct surveys in suitable daylight conditions with low wind and low background noise where practicable.
• Record the survey date, start and finish time, weather, observers, route, area searched and habitat searched.
• Record the location and behaviour of each detection, including foraging, display, movement between habitat patches and any response to disturbance.

Survey methodology: 2. Call and canopy detection

Use passive listening as a primary detection method because White-eared Monarchs are often heard before they are seen.

Watch the outer canopy and branches for active gleaning, aerial hawking, tail cocking, raised crown feathers and rapid wing spreading.

Do not treat a call-only record as weak evidence when the call is distinctive and the location and conditions are recorded clearly.

Use call playback only where permitted by the relevant project and fauna survey requirements, and stop if the bird shows distress or repeated alarm behaviour.

• Survey during periods of suitable bird activity selected by the ecologist, with particular attention to the breeding period from August or September to January or March.
• Repeat surveys across more than one visit where the habitat is suitable and detection conditions are variable.
• Consider seasonal coverage in south-eastern Queensland because records indicate that birds may be absent from high-altitude areas in winter and return to the ranges to breed.

Survey methodology: 3. Breeding and habitat checks

Search for deep cup nests in outer foliage and, where appropriate, lower shrubs within or beside the proposed work area.

Look for nests made from moss, grass, bark strips, plant fibres and spider webs, including nests with a pale or whitish appearance.

Treat an occupied or recently used nest as a breeding-site constraint and obtain advice from the project ecologist before disturbing nearby vegetation.

Assess adjoining retained vegetation because the species may move between highland and lowland areas and may use coastal or lower-altitude habitat outside the breeding period.

General breeding period: August or September to January or March

Nest position: Usually high in outer canopy foliage, but sometimes lower in shrubs

Nest form: Deep cup

• Schedule nest searches before vegetation clearing and repeat them immediately before works if clearing is delayed.
• Use non-destructive observation methods and avoid climbing or handling nests unless authorised under the project’s fauna management arrangements.
• Map suitable retained habitat, creekside vegetation, rainforest margins and links between habitat patches.

Survey methodology: Minimum effort and reporting

No species-specific minimum number of survey nights, hours, trap nights, transect length or search area is provided in the available documents.

Set effort using the applicable state survey guideline, approval conditions and the size, condition and connectivity of the habitat proposed for disturbance.

Because this is a canopy-foraging bird, terrestrial trapping is not a substitute for visual and auditory bird surveys.

• Record the number of visits, survey hours, observers, survey area, transect or search route, weather, wind, rain, visibility and background noise.
• Record all detections with coordinates, date, time, detection method, call or sighting details, habitat, behaviour and photographs or audio where available.
• Submit confirmed records and required project results to the relevant state wildlife database.
• Report any suspected breeding site, repeated use of retained habitat or seasonal movement pattern to the project ecologist and the relevant approval authority where required.

Before habitat disturbance: Avoid and minimise habitat loss

Plan works around the species’ use of rainforest and wetter forest, particularly outer-canopy and creekside habitat. The White-eared Monarch is listed as Vulnerable in New South Wales according to the project information, while its national and state status must be checked against current registers before works begin.

Retain rainforest, vine forest, wet forest, creekside vegetation, paperbark swamp, mangrove and connected forest wherever practicable.

Prioritise retention of mature outer-canopy vegetation and vegetation along streams because these are documented foraging settings for the species.

Keep retained habitat connected to nearby rainforest, wet forest and other suitable vegetation rather than creating isolated remnants.

Avoid disturbing known nests and the vegetation immediately around them during the breeding period from August or September to January or March.

• Use the smallest practicable clearing footprint and place access tracks, compounds and stockpiles in already disturbed areas.
• Keep machinery and spoil out of retained vegetation, creek lines, wet areas and rainforest margins.
• Have the ecologist define site-specific protection areas around nests and retained habitat before clearing starts.

Before habitat disturbance: Check approvals and permits

Check the current EPBC Act status and determine whether referral or approval is required for the proposed action.

Check New South Wales threatened species requirements where the project is in NSW, and check the relevant state or territory legislation for projects elsewhere in Australia.

Confirm whether survey, fauna handling, wildlife rehabilitation or scientific licence requirements apply to the ecologist, fauna spotter catcher or contractor.

Include species-specific controls and reporting requirements in the fauna management plan and approval conditions.

NSW listing in the project information: Vulnerable

EPBC listing in the project information: Not listed

• Obtain written confirmation of any required approvals before clearing or relocating fauna.
• Make approval conditions available to supervisors, machinery operators and fauna personnel at the pre-start briefing.
• Do not rely on an old species listing or previous project approval without checking the current register.

Before habitat disturbance: Plan timing and staging

Plan clearing outside the main breeding period where practicable, noting that the documented breeding period extends from August or September to January or March.

Stage clearing so that retained forest, creekside vegetation and movement links remain available while works progress.

Allow time for a pre-clearance survey and for the fauna spotter catcher to manage any animal, nest or habitat feature found during works.

Consider seasonal movement when planning high-altitude works in south-eastern Queensland because the species may move to coastal areas in winter and return to ranges to breed.

• Prepare a fauna management plan that identifies stop-work triggers, communication channels, handling limits, release sites and escalation contacts.
• Nominate a suitably qualified ecologist to review unexpected records and changes to the clearing footprint.
• Brief all personnel on the species’ calls, appearance, canopy behaviour and habitat before work starts.

Before habitat disturbance: Prepare the site

Complete a pre-clearance survey of the full disturbance area and a suitable adjoining area of retained habitat before machinery enters.

Mark approved clearing limits, retained rainforest and creekside vegetation, nest locations and no-go areas on the ground and in the site plans.

Install exclusion fencing where it can protect retained vegetation, nests, creekside habitat or other no-go areas without blocking required fauna movement.

Remove stored materials, waste and access obstructions from retained habitat before clearing begins.

• Recheck marked areas after heavy rain, flooding, fire or changes to the design.
• Ensure the fauna spotter catcher has safe access, communications, transport equipment and approved release and veterinary contacts.
• Do not clear based only on an earlier desktop record or a survey conducted outside the approved survey requirements.

During habitat disturbance: Daily controls and spotter coordination

Clearing should proceed under daily supervision and within clearly marked limits. The fauna spotter catcher should work ahead of machinery, maintain communication with operators and stop work when an animal, nest or unexpected habitat feature could be affected.

Complete a daily pre-start inspection of exclusion fencing, clearing limits, retained vegetation, access routes and known nest locations.

Have the fauna spotter catcher inspect the active work area before machinery starts and remain in communication with the operator throughout clearing.

Clear progressively in a direction that allows animals to move towards retained habitat, where this is safe and consistent with the approved fauna management plan.

Keep machinery at a speed and operating distance that allows the spotter catcher to see the work area and signal an immediate stop.

• Stop machinery immediately when the spotter catcher gives the agreed stop signal.
• Do not allow operators to work under or against marked no-go areas without approval from the responsible ecologist.
• Keep personnel, vehicles and spoil out of retained creekside, rainforest and wet forest vegetation.
• Repeat the inspection after breaks, shift changes and any change in the clearing area.

During habitat disturbance: Habitat features and nests

Inspect outer-canopy vegetation, lower shrubs and adjoining retained vegetation for the species’ deep cup nests before removing vegetation.

Do not disturb an occupied or suspected active nest until the ecologist has assessed it and the applicable approval requirements have been met.

Handle hollow-bearing trees, logs, rocks, burrows and wetland features under the approved fauna management plan, even though these features are not identified as specific White-eared Monarch nest sites in the available species information.

Retain and protect creekside vegetation and other wet forest features where they fall outside the approved footprint.

• Stop work around a suspected nest, injured bird or trapped animal until the spotter catcher and ecologist determine the next action.
• Do not move a nest, eggs or dependent young unless the responsible authority and an appropriately authorised person direct the action.
• Use a staged, controlled process for any habitat feature relocation, with machinery stopped and the feature checked before handling.

During habitat disturbance: If the bird is found

Stop work and give the bird time to move away naturally if it is mobile and not trapped or injured.

Do not chase, net or handle the bird unless handling is necessary, authorised and safe under the project’s fauna management plan.

If relocation is required, use nearby retained habitat with suitable rainforest, wet forest, creekside or connected vegetation, and record the release location.

Take an injured bird to an appropriately authorised wildlife carer or veterinarian as soon as practicable, following the project’s wildlife care arrangements.

• Keep people and machinery away from the bird while the spotter catcher assesses its condition.
• Use only trained and authorised personnel for capture, transport and release.
• Do not release a bird into an isolated or unsuitable cleared area.
• Record the species identification, condition, action taken, release or treatment location, time and personnel involved.

During habitat disturbance: Stop-work triggers and records

Stop work for any confirmed or suspected White-eared Monarch nest within the work area, an injured or trapped bird, an unexpected bird concentration or clearing outside the approved footprint.

Stop work if exclusion fencing, habitat protection measures or communication with the spotter catcher fail.

Escalate repeated detections, breeding behaviour or use of retained habitat to the project ecologist for review of the work method and timing.

Maintain daily fauna records for searches, sightings, nest checks, incidents, relocations, injuries, mortalities and control inspections.

• Record zero detections as well as detections so that survey coverage is clear.
• Photograph and map significant incidents and habitat features where this can be done without disturbing the bird.
• Notify the project manager and relevant authority within the timeframe set by approvals or the fauna management plan.

After habitat disturbance: Post-clearance inspection

Post-clearing checks should confirm that no fauna remains trapped and that retained habitat controls are still working. Monitoring should focus on retained rainforest, wetter forest, creekside vegetation and links between habitat patches.

Complete a final fauna inspection of the cleared area, retained vegetation edges, access tracks, stockpiles and drainage features after each clearing stage.

Check for injured, trapped or displaced birds and report them through the approved fauna response process.

Inspect nest locations and nearby retained vegetation for damage, encroachment or changes caused by machinery.

Remove temporary hazards such as exposed pits, unsecured materials and fencing that could trap or injure fauna, unless the fencing is still required for protection.

• Do not reopen an area to general work until the spotter catcher or responsible ecologist has completed the required inspection.
• Record the date, area checked, observers, findings, incidents and corrective actions.
• Update the site map where the final clearing footprint differs from the approved plan.

After habitat disturbance: Monitoring and reporting

Monitor retained rainforest, vine forest, wet forest and creekside vegetation for continued use by the species where required by approvals or the fauna management plan.

Use repeat visual and auditory surveys, recording calls, sightings, behaviour, habitat and any evidence of breeding.

Review monitoring results after the breeding period and, where relevant, across seasons because records indicate possible altitudinal movement in south-eastern Queensland.

Maintain exclusion fencing, weed controls, erosion controls and access restrictions for as long as the retained habitat remains at risk.

• Report confirmed records, incidents, mortalities, nest findings and rehabilitation outcomes to the relevant state wildlife database and approval authority where required.
• Compare results with the pre-clearance baseline and investigate a decline in detections where monitoring was required.
• Assess whether additional habitat protection, restoration or approved offsets are needed to meet project conditions.

Rehabilitation actions: Restore suitable vegetation

Rehabilitation should recreate connected, insect-rich wet forest structure rather than only replacing cleared ground cover. The available documents identify habitat types and foraging settings, but do not specify local planting palettes, nest-box designs or quantitative success thresholds.

Re-establish locally appropriate rainforest, vine forest, wet forest and creekside vegetation within disturbed areas where those communities are part of the approved rehabilitation target.

Prioritise a layered structure with canopy and outer-canopy foliage because the species forages actively on foliage and branches and often uses the outer canopy.

Use local provenance plant species selected by the restoration ecologist for the relevant regional vegetation community, rather than applying a generic planting list.

Reconnect retained forest patches and creekside vegetation wherever the rehabilitation design allows.

• Control weeds that suppress regeneration or reduce the structure of retained and planted vegetation.
• Protect revegetation from browsing, trampling, vehicle access and other project impacts until it is established.
• Manage fire in accordance with the approved ecological fire regime and local fire authority advice, avoiding inappropriate fire in recovering rainforest and wet forest communities.

Rehabilitation actions: Replace habitat structure where justified

Retain existing mature trees and outer-canopy vegetation wherever safe because planted replacement trees will not immediately provide equivalent structure.

Use nest boxes only where a qualified ecologist identifies a suitable need and provides a design and placement plan; the available species information describes natural nests in foliage rather than hollow use.

Reinstate logs, rocks, burrows and wetland features only where they form part of the approved local habitat design, and place them so they do not damage retained rainforest or creekside vegetation.

Do not install or move habitat features without considering fire, flooding, weeds, predators, public safety and maintenance access.

• Keep reinstated features connected to retained vegetation and away from routine vehicle movement.
• Inspect nest boxes or other installed features at the frequency set by the ecologist and approval conditions.
• Record the location, design, installation date and maintenance history of each artificial feature.

Rehabilitation actions: Monitor rehabilitation success

Monitor plant survival, canopy development, weed cover, erosion, connectivity and use by woodland and rainforest birds, including White-eared Monarch detections where monitoring is required.

Use the same or comparable auditory and visual survey methods used before disturbance so that changes in detection are interpretable.

Include checks during the documented breeding period from August or September to January or March and consider seasonal checks where the site is in a potential altitudinal movement area.

Set measurable success criteria in the rehabilitation plan, because the available documents do not provide species-specific planting densities, tree sizes, nest-box numbers or monitoring thresholds.

Species breeding period for monitoring: August or September to January or March

Species foraging setting: Foliage and branches, often in the outer canopy

• Record the number of planted trees surviving, the area with established native cover, weed presence, condition of creekside vegetation and any White-eared Monarch records.
• Repair failed erosion controls, replace dead plants and remove weeds when monitoring shows that rehabilitation targets are not being met.
• Continue monitoring and maintenance for the period required by approvals, then formally document whether the site is stable and supporting suitable connected habitat.

Sources

• White-eared Monarch | Wingmate Australia, wingmate.au: https://www.wingmate.au/au/birds/monarch/white-eared-monarch
• The White-eared Monarch Monarcha leucotis as a Possible ... - Birdlife, BirdLife Australia: https://afo.birdlife.org.au/afo/index.php/afo/article/view/1091