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Wedge-tailed Eagle (Aquila audax)

The Wedge-tailed Eagle is Australia's largest living bird of prey. It occurs across mainland Australia and Tasmania, and may use cleared land, roadsides, woodland and forest around development sites, while breeding pairs depend on secure nest trees and are sensitive to disturbance during the breeding season.

Conservation status

Commonwealth, EPBC Act 1999: Endangered.

Tasmania, Threatened Species Protection Act 1995: Endangered.

Breeding season

Timing varies across Australia. Mainland breeding is generally earlier than Tasmanian breeding, and young birds remain dependent after leaving the nest.

Survey and clearing timing must be adjusted to local conditions, especially in Tasmania where breeding is later. Active nests and breeding behaviour should take precedence over calendar dates.

  • Breeding: Mainland breeding usually occurs from April to September, mainly July. Tasmanian breeding usually occurs from August to January and can extend to late February, with peak laying in September.
  • Young: Incubation lasts about 40 to 47 days and nestlings remain in the nest for about 75 to 85 days. Young remain with adults for about 11 weeks after leaving the nest.
  • Movement and dispersal: Established pairs are resident and territorial. Young and non-breeding birds disperse when conditions suit them. Juveniles have moved more than 850 km over seven to eight months, and Tasmanian non-breeding birds are nomadic.
  • Highest clearing risk: Clearing and disturbance are most likely to harm the species during nest preparation, laying, incubation and dependent-young periods. The highest combined risk is generally April to October on the mainland and August to January in Tasmania.

Identification

This is a large, dark eagle with long wings and a distinctive wedge-shaped tail. It is usually straightforward to identify in flight, but observations should still record age class, behaviour, flight direction and any associated nest.

Adults are mostly dark blackish-brown. Juveniles are mid-brown, with reddish-brown heads and wings, and become progressively darker during their first ten years. Females are generally slightly paler than males and are larger and heavier.

The species has a pale pink to cream bill, brown to dark brown eyes, off-white feet and legs feathered to the base of the toes. The long, wedge-shaped tail and long wings are the most useful field characters.

Flight identification: Long wings, wedge-shaped tail and dark adult plumage.

Sex differences: Females are larger, heavier and generally slightly paler than males.

  • Record an eagle with a long wedge-shaped tail, long wings and fully feathered lower legs as a likely Wedge-tailed Eagle.
  • Do not confuse it with the White-bellied Sea-Eagle, which has shorter, more rounded wings and unfeathered lower legs.

Identification: Field signs and behaviour

The species is conspicuous when soaring or perched in an exposed position, but can be difficult to detect inside forest. The call is a rarely heard 'pee-yaa'.

Nests are very large stick structures with a shallow cup lined with fresh twigs and leaves. They are usually in a prominent, tall tree with a good view, but may occur in dead trees, smaller trees, shrubs, cliff faces or on the ground where tall trees are absent.

Typical nest dimensions: Nests up to about 1.8 to 2 m wide and 3 m deep have been recorded.

Known nest height: Three north-eastern New South Wales nests were 20, 25 and 30 m above ground.

  • Search prominent trees and exposed cliff positions for large stick nests, fresh leafy lining, accumulated sticks and whitewash beneath the nest.
  • Record adults carrying sticks or leaves, repeated visits to one tree, courtship flights, territorial behaviour or adults delivering prey.
  • Treat a large stick nest as potentially active until its status has been checked by a suitably experienced ecologist.

Distribution: Australian range

The Wedge-tailed Eagle is widespread across Australia, including Tasmania, and also occurs in southern New Guinea. The supplied documents do not provide a national population estimate or a reliable population trend for the species as a whole.

The species occurs throughout mainland Australia and Tasmania. This includes the mainland states and the Northern Territory, with records from sea level to alpine regions.

The Tasmanian form, Aquila audax fleayi, is the EPBC Act listed form addressed in the supplied survey guidance. Established pairs are resident, while non-breeding and young birds are nomadic.

Recorded range: Mainland Australia, Tasmania and southern New Guinea.

Tasmanian nesting density: Estimated at one nest per 20 to 30 km² in lowland eastern and northern Tasmania, and one per 1200 km² in highland western Tasmania.

Population size and trend: No national population estimate or species-wide trend is provided in the supplied documents.

  • Consider the species in all Australian states and territories where suitable woodland, forest, open country or feeding habitat occurs.
  • In Tasmania, consider both the listed Tasmanian form and its use of old-growth eucalypt forest, cleared land, grasslands and other open feeding areas.

Distribution: Site-scale distribution

Breeding pairs hold territories around nest sites throughout the year. Their wider hunting home ranges can overlap with other breeding pairs and non-breeding birds.

Active nests are normally separated by about 2.5 to 4 km, although distances can be less than 1 km where prey and other resources are particularly abundant.

Typical nest spacing: About 2.5 to 4 km in most years; less than 1 km has been recorded where resources are abundant.

Juvenile movement: Juveniles have moved more than 850 km over a seven to eight month period.

  • Map all suitable tall trees, known nests, soaring observations, carcasses and likely feeding areas across the project area and nearby connected habitat.
  • Do not treat an absence of observations during one visit as evidence that the species is absent.

Habitat: Habitat types

Wedge-tailed Eagles use a broad range of terrestrial habitats, provided that they can access prey and suitable perches or nest sites. Habitat use differs between regions, particularly in Tasmania.

The species uses wooded and forested country, open country, grasslands, cleared land, dry woodland, sub-alpine forest and, in Tasmania, temperate rainforest, coastal heath, dwarf coniferous forest and old-growth eucalypt forest.

It occurs from sea level to alpine regions. Birds commonly soar over open areas and may perch on trees or poles. The species generally avoids rainforest and coastal heaths in much of its range, although the Tasmanian survey guidance records these habitats as foraging habitats.

Elevation: From sea level to alpine regions; soaring birds may reach altitudes of about 2000 m or more.

Key habitat structure: Tall or emergent trees, exposed perches, open hunting areas and a broad view around the nest.

  • Assess both retained vegetation and open areas, because feeding habitat can extend well beyond the nest tree.
  • Include surrounding cleared land, pasture, roadsides and forest edges in habitat mapping where prey or carrion may occur.

Habitat: Nest-tree habitat

Breeding nests are usually placed in the tallest available tree within a territory, often a prominent live or dead tree. In Tasmania, most nests are reported from emergent trees in old-growth eucalypt forest, where slopes provide shelter from strong winds and exposure to early morning sun.

In north-eastern New South Wales, studied nests were in eucalypt forest or on the edge of a tea-tree plantation and forest. Nest trees were 20 to 30 m high in that study.

Nest longevity: The same nest may be used for up to 50 years.

Nest-tree setting: Usually the tallest tree in the territory, with a prominent position and a good view.

  • Retain large emergent and dead trees where possible, including trees outside the immediate construction footprint that could be used as nest or roost trees.
  • Check whether proposed works will remove the nest tree, reduce its view, increase exposure to wind or bring regular activity closer to the nest.

Foraging habitat: Diet

The Wedge-tailed Eagle is an opportunistic predator and scavenger. It can forage over large areas and may be attracted to roads, stock areas and construction zones where carcasses or displaced prey are present.

Carrion, including roadkill and other carcasses, is a major food source. Live prey includes rabbits and hares, lizards, birds and mammals. Rabbits commonly make up about 30 to 70 per cent of the diet and have reached 92 per cent in some areas.

A north-eastern New South Wales study recorded 29 vertebrate prey species. By number, the diet was 50 per cent mammals, 27 per cent birds and 23 per cent reptiles. Recorded prey included rabbits, wallabies, bandicoots, possums, flying-foxes, koalas, birds, bearded dragons, bluetongue lizards and lace monitors.

Main food source: Carrion, including roadkill and other carcasses.

Live prey: Rabbits and hares, mammals, birds and reptiles.

Foraging groups: Birds may hunt alone, in pairs or in groups. Groups can attack prey as large as adult kangaroos.

  • Map rabbit warrens, macropod activity, waterbird habitat, reptile habitat, livestock areas and regular carcass locations near the project.
  • Manage animal carcasses and waste so that eagles are not drawn into active work areas or onto roads.
  • Do not assume that an eagle feeding on a lamb has killed it, because many reports involve scavenging animals that were already dead.

Foraging habitat: Foraging behaviour

The species hunts by gliding attacks, pouncing and surprise attacks from behind vegetation. It can pursue prey along the ground and may carry food to a nearby tree or cache it near the nest.

Many birds may gather at one carcass, although only a small number feed at one time. This creates a collision and disturbance risk where roadkill occurs beside active roads.

Carcass attendance: Up to about 20 birds have been recorded at a carcass, although usually only two or three feed at one time.

Food carrying: An eagle can carry about 50 per cent of its body weight under ideal conditions; Victorian guidance records carriage of up to 5 kg of prey.

  • Inspect road verges and work areas for carcasses before daily high-speed vehicle movements begin.
  • Use trained fauna personnel and traffic controls if an eagle is feeding on a carcass within or beside the work area.
  • Keep stock carcasses, food waste and poisoned animals away from locations accessible to eagles.

Breeding habitat: Breeding biology

Breeding pairs are monogamous, territorial around the nest and generally remain in the same area throughout the year. Disturbance during nest preparation, laying, incubation and early chick rearing can lead to nest abandonment or reduced breeding success.

Pairs usually reuse a large stick nest for many years. Both adults contribute to nest building, incubation and care of the young, although the female normally does most incubation and the male commonly supplies food.

Eggs are laid at intervals of two to four days, so chicks hatch at different times. The first chick is normally the largest and may kill smaller nest mates if food is scarce. A pair usually raises one young, although two may fledge in a good year.

Breeding season, mainland: Usually April to September, mainly July.

Breeding season, Tasmania: Usually August to January, sometimes extending to late February, with peak laying in September.

Clutch size: One to three eggs, usually two.

Incubation: About 40 to 47 days, with about 45 days commonly reported.

Nestling period: About 75 to 85 days.

Age at maturity: The supplied documents do not state a precise age at sexual maturity. Young birds may not reach adult plumage until about 6 to 10 years.

Lifespan: Up to 20 years is recorded in Victorian government guidance.

  • Schedule vegetation clearing, blasting, piling, helicopter work and other high-disturbance activities outside the relevant breeding period where practicable.
  • Establish a site-specific exclusion and monitoring procedure around any active nest, based on advice from the relevant state or territory regulator and an experienced raptor ecologist.
  • Stop work and report the observation if an adult repeatedly delivers prey, incubates, broods or defends a nest.

Breeding habitat: Breeding-site features

A suitable breeding site has a large tree or other elevated structure, a clear view over the surrounding country and nearby access to prey. In Tasmania, nests are commonly in emergent trees in old-growth eucalypt forest on slopes sheltered from strong winds and exposed to early morning sun.

Nests may be 1.8 m wide, 3 m deep and about 400 kg where large structures have accumulated over many years. The nest is usually reused and enlarged with sticks, fresh twigs and leaves.

Known nest spacing: Usually 2.5 to 4 km between active nests, but less than 1 km is possible where food is abundant.

Known nest-tree height: 20 to 30 m in a three-nest study in north-eastern New South Wales.

  • Retain the nest tree and other large trees that provide approach routes, perches and screening around the nest.
  • Inspect the wider area for alternate nests, because a breeding pair may maintain and reuse more than one nest structure.
  • Record the nest position, tree species, tree height, nest height, activity and distance to proposed works.

Sheltering habitat: Roosts and perches

The species does not use dens, burrows, hollows or shelters in the way that many mammals do. It shelters, roosts and feeds from elevated trees, nest structures, poles, cliffs and other exposed locations.

Adults and young use trees, poles and other elevated perches to survey the surrounding area. Breeding pairs may roost together near the nest, while nests also act as feeding platforms.

Main feeding trees may be close to the nest. In one study, they were usually within 20 m of the nest tree.

Main feeding-tree distance: Usually within 20 m of the nest tree in one north-eastern New South Wales study.

Alternative nest locations: Dead trees, smaller trees, shrubs, cliff faces and the ground may be used where tall trees are absent.

  • Retain tall live and dead trees, prominent limbs and other elevated perches near known nests and regular flight paths.
  • Check tall trees outside the clearing boundary, because they may be used for roosting, feeding or staging even when the nest tree is retained.
  • Keep lighting, night works and repeated vehicle movements away from known roost and nest trees where practicable.

Sheltering habitat: Nest structures

Large stick nests provide the main shelter and breeding structure. They have a shallow cup lined with fresh twigs and leaves, and dropped sticks may accumulate below the nest tree.

A nest can be reused for decades. Damage to the nest tree, removal of approach perches or disturbance near the structure can affect a breeding pair even when the nest itself is not removed.

Large recorded nest: About 1.8 m across, 3 m deep and 400 kg.

Nest reuse: The same nest may be used for up to 50 years.

  • Do not remove, dismantle or interfere with a large stick nest without the required approvals and specialist advice.
  • Inspect below suspected nest trees for stick piles, feathers, prey remains and whitewash, while keeping observers and vehicles at a distance.

Threats: Clearing and disturbance

Project risks are greatest where clearing removes nest or roost trees, disturbance occurs during breeding, or roads and poisoning create accessible hazards. The species is listed as Endangered under the EPBC Act and in Tasmania according to the supplied project information.

Clearing can remove tall nesting trees and reduce nesting resources. Forestry operations and disturbance while a pair is preparing to lay can cause nest abandonment.

In Tasmania, habitat loss and deliberate persecution are identified threats. The species can tolerate some rural development, but this does not remove the need to protect active nests and nearby habitat.

Relevant breeding period: April to September on mainland Australia and August to January in Tasmania, with Tasmanian breeding sometimes extending to late February.

Nest persistence: A nest may be reused for up to 50 years, so an apparently old nest can remain important.

  • Complete a desktop and field check for nests, alternate nests, tall perches and likely feeding areas before clearing.
  • Avoid removing active or potentially active nest trees and retain a suitable buffer determined by project-specific ecological advice and regulatory requirements.
  • Limit repeated machinery movement, blasting, aircraft, drones and other disturbance near active nests during breeding and dependent-young periods.

Threats: Roads and poisoning

Roadkill attracts eagles to road corridors, where birds can be struck by vehicles while feeding or flying from a carcass. Poisoning remains a major hazard when eagles eat animals killed by pesticides, baits or other toxins.

Historical persecution included shooting and poisoning based on claims that eagles killed livestock. Government guidance states that healthy lambs are rarely attacked and fully grown sheep are not attacked.

Road-risk trigger: Feeding on roadkill can place eagles directly on or beside active roads.

Poisoning pathway: Secondary poisoning can occur when eagles consume animals affected by pesticides or baits.

  • Remove or safely manage carcasses near active roads and work areas in accordance with hygiene, biosecurity and wildlife requirements.
  • Do not use poison baits or pesticides where an eagle could access the target animal, carcass or contaminated prey.
  • Securely store and dispose of carcasses, bait stations and chemical containers, and report suspected poisoning or deliberate harm.

Threats: Fire, fragmentation and hydrology

The supplied documents do not provide species-specific thresholds for fire frequency, hydrology change or habitat fragmentation. Project assessments should still consider whether these changes remove nest trees, reduce prey availability, isolate retained woodland or increase access to active nests.

Changes to prey abundance can affect breeding. Rabbit control has been linked with concerns about food supply, clutch size and breeding success, although studies show that the species can use a diverse range of native prey where rabbits are scarce.

Survey detectability: Detectability is highest at the start of the breeding season when pair bonding, mating and territorial displays occur.

Recommended Tasmanian survey effort: For areas under 50 ha, the survey guideline recommends 20 hours over 10 days using area searches or transects, with replication within and across seasons where possible.

  • Assess direct and indirect effects on nest trees, prey habitat, carcass availability and movement between nesting and feeding areas.
  • Do not use the absence of a nest during a single survey to dismiss potential habitat value, particularly outside the period when breeding displays and nest activity are easiest to detect.
  • Use project-specific fire and water assessments where works alter vegetation structure, drainage or access to prey habitat.

Survey methodology: 1. Desktop review and habitat assessment

Survey for Wedge-tailed Eagles must locate adults, pairs, soaring birds, roosts and nests before vegetation clearing or construction. Use the Tasmanian threatened bird guideline where the Tasmanian subspecies may occur, and adapt area searches and transects to suitable habitat elsewhere in Australia.

Tasmanian breeding season: August to January inclusive, sometimes extending to late February, with peak laying in September.

Tasmanian nesting density: About one pair per 20 to 30 square kilometres in lowland eastern and northern Tasmania, and one pair per 1200 square kilometres in highland western Tasmania.

  • Check recent records, known nest locations and aerial imagery before planning field work.
  • Map wooded and forested land, open country, old-growth eucalypt forest, emergent trees, cliffs and other prominent nest sites within and around the proposed disturbance area.
  • Treat large emergent trees in old-growth eucalypt forest as potential nest trees, especially where slopes provide shelter from strong winds and receive early morning sun.
  • Assess nearby retained habitat because established pairs are resident, while non-breeding and young birds are nomadic.
  • In Tasmania, consider coastal heath, dry woodland, sub-alpine forest, temperate rainforest, dwarf coniferous forest, grassland and cleared land as potential foraging habitat.

Survey methodology: 2. Area searches and transects

Tasmanian guideline effort: 20 hours over 10 days for area searches or transect surveys in areas of less than 50 hectares.

Detectability: High when soaring or perched in exposed situations, and lower when the bird is in forest.

  • Conduct systematic area searches or transect surveys through suitable habitat for perched and soaring eagles, active nests and old nests.
  • For sites under 50 hectares in Tasmania, complete 20 hours of area searches or transect surveys over 10 days.
  • Replicate searches within and across seasons where the project may affect a nest, breeding pair or extensive foraging area.
  • Prioritise the onset of the breeding season, when pair bonding, mating and territorial displays increase detectability.
  • Search exposed ridges, valleys, forest edges, open country, large trees and other locations where an eagle may perch or soar.
  • Record the direction of flight, perch locations, display behaviour, nest condition and the distance from each observation to the proposed works.

Survey methodology: 3. Aerial and vantage-point surveys

Tasmanian aerial survey effort: 4 hours over 2 days, with transects close enough to cover the area adequately.

Typical nest spacing: Usually 2.5 to 4 kilometres apart in the general species account, although distances can be less than 1 kilometre where prey and other resources are abundant.

  • Use aerial survey where the project covers a large area or where ground access does not provide a reliable view of soaring birds and nests.
  • In Tasmania, complete at least 4 hours of aerial survey over 2 days when this method is selected for a site requiring the guideline effort.
  • Use elevated vantage points and binoculars or a telescope to scan for soaring birds, exposed nests and territorial activity.
  • Inspect the tallest live and dead trees in each potential nesting territory, because nests are usually built in a prominent location with a wide view of the surrounding country.
  • Plan aerial or vantage-point work to avoid creating additional disturbance near a suspected nest.

Survey methodology: 4. Nest and breeding checks

Nest reuse: The same nest may be used for up to 50 years in Tasmania, and nests are often reused for years generally.

Nest size: Nests may reach about 1.8 to 2 metres across and 3 metres deep.

  • Inspect potential nests from a distance using optics before approaching any tree or structure.
  • Look for the large stick nest, fresh leaves, adults carrying sticks or prey, adults defending the area, eggs, chicks and fledged young.
  • Record whether a nest is active, apparently inactive or of unknown status, and document the evidence for that classification.
  • Do not climb, fell or use machinery near a suspected active nest until the project ecologist has assessed the risk and required controls.
  • Allow for extended breeding activity in Tasmania through January and sometimes late February, rather than relying only on a single seasonal visit.

Survey methodology: Minimum effort and reporting

  • Use the Tasmanian guideline effort of 20 hours over 10 days for ground searches, or 4 hours over 2 days for aerial survey, where the Tasmanian subspecies is relevant.
  • For other Australian locations, document the habitat assessment, search area, transect routes, observation time, weather, visibility, surveyors, equipment and detection limitations, because the supplied guideline provides the species-specific effort only for Tasmania.
  • Submit records of sightings, nests, breeding activity and injured or dead birds to the relevant state wildlife database.
  • Provide survey results, mapped nests, retained habitat, proposed controls and any unresolved risks to the project approval authority before clearing starts.
  • Treat an absence claim cautiously where survey conditions or effort did not provide a reasonable chance of detecting a soaring, perched or forest-hidden eagle.

Before habitat disturbance: Avoid and minimise

Plan the project around nesting trees, established pairs and the species' broad foraging area. Wedge-tailed Eagles use wooded and forested land, open country and a wide range of Tasmanian habitats, and breeding pairs can remain in one territory throughout the year.

Habitat: The species prefers wooded and forested land and open country, and generally avoids rainforest and coastal heaths in the general Australian account; the Tasmanian subspecies uses a wider range of habitats including coastal heath and temperate rainforest.

  • Redesign the disturbance footprint to retain active nests, nest trees, other prominent mature trees and the surrounding forest that supports breeding activity.
  • Retain connected wooded and open foraging habitat between the nest area and nearby feeding areas.
  • Retain live and dead trees where they provide nest or perch opportunities, because nests may be built in either live or dead trees.
  • Avoid disturbance near a suspected active nest during the breeding period, with the timing and separation distance set by the project ecologist and approval conditions.
  • Do not assume that a site is unimportant because it is close to a road or settlement, as successful breeding has been recorded near rural development and a busy road.

Before habitat disturbance: Approvals and project planning

  • Check whether the proposed action may affect the EPBC Act Endangered Wedge-tailed Eagle listing or the Endangered Tasmanian subspecies, and obtain advice on referral requirements before works begin.
  • Check state and territory wildlife legislation, permits and approval conditions for clearing, nest disturbance, handling, relocation, rehabilitation and removal of protected fauna.
  • Prepare a fauna management plan that identifies survey results, nest and habitat maps, exclusion areas, seasonal constraints, stop-work triggers, fauna spotter catcher responsibilities and incident reporting.
  • Stage clearing so the highest-risk habitat and trees are assessed first and retained habitat remains available while other works proceed.
  • Schedule ground disturbance outside the local breeding period where practicable, noting that breeding timing varies with conditions and location.

Before habitat disturbance: Site preparation

Identification: The species has long wings, a long wedge-shaped tail and legs feathered to the base of the toes; the adult is mostly dark blackish-brown and the juvenile is mid brown with a reddish-brown head and wings.

  • Complete the pre-clearance survey close enough to the start of works to detect current nests, birds and breeding activity.
  • Mark nest trees, retained mature trees, exclusion areas, access routes and no-go habitat clearly on plans and on the ground.
  • Brief machinery operators, supervisors and fauna spotter catchers on the eagle identification features, mapped controls and stop-work procedure.
  • Install exclusion fencing or other physical controls where they can prevent machinery, vehicles and workers entering retained nest or habitat areas without creating additional disturbance.
  • Keep access, laydown and spoil areas away from retained nest trees, feeding areas and likely flight paths where practicable.

During habitat disturbance: Daily controls and machinery coordination

Use a controlled clearing process with a fauna spotter catcher working directly with the supervisor and machinery operators. The aim is to prevent injury, avoid unplanned nest disturbance and keep a clear record of every fauna interaction.

  • Inspect exclusion fencing, nest markers, access controls and retained habitat before each shift.
  • Conduct a daily pre-start briefing covering active or potential nests, the day's clearing sequence, spotter catcher signals and stop-work triggers.
  • Keep the fauna spotter catcher in a position with a clear view of the vegetation or structure being disturbed and require machinery operators to stop immediately on the agreed signal.
  • Clear progressively in small sections so the spotter catcher can inspect each area before machinery enters it.
  • Do not allow machinery, vehicles or workers to enter a nest exclusion area unless the ecologist and approval conditions expressly allow the activity.
  • Avoid creating sudden disturbance at a nest, including loud work, repeated vehicle movements, bright night lighting or unnecessary worker access.

During habitat disturbance: Habitat feature handling

  • Inspect large live and dead trees for nests before felling, trimming or placing machinery beneath them.
  • Retain nest trees and nearby mature trees wherever practicable, and do not handle or dismantle an eagle nest unless specifically authorised.
  • Inspect felled trees, branches, logs, rocks, ground cover and other material for fauna before moving them, even though the supplied species accounts identify trees and prominent structures as the main nest features.
  • Keep retained trees, logs, rocks and ground cover outside machinery swing areas and spoil storage areas.
  • Prevent vehicles from accessing carcasses on roads or work areas where eagles may be feeding, because roadkill and other carcasses are readily eaten and collisions are a known risk.

During habitat disturbance: If an eagle is found

  • Stop the relevant activity if an eagle, nest, chick, injured bird or carcass is found within the work area or if an eagle repeatedly enters an active work zone.
  • Tell the site supervisor and project ecologist immediately, and keep workers, machinery and vehicles back while the situation is assessed.
  • Do not chase, catch, handle, transport or relocate a healthy eagle unless the person is authorised under the applicable approval and wildlife law.
  • Allow a healthy bird to leave naturally where safe, and relocate it only under an approved fauna management procedure to suitable nearby retained habitat.
  • Use an authorised wildlife carer, veterinarian or wildlife authority for an injured or sick bird, and record the response and animal outcome.
  • Do not approach an active nest to rescue a chick or remove nest material without specific advice from the project ecologist and the relevant authority.

During habitat disturbance: Stop-work triggers and records

  • Stop work and reassess if an active nest, egg, chick, fledgling, adult displaying territorial behaviour or repeated low flight is detected near the works.
  • Stop work if exclusion fencing, nest markers or other controls are damaged, missing or bypassed.
  • Record date, time, location, observer, activity, weather, bird age or condition, behaviour, photographs, action taken, authority contacted and outcome for every observation or incident.
  • Report any suspected illegal persecution, poisoning, shooting, nest damage or unauthorised handling through the relevant state wildlife reporting pathway.
  • Update the fauna management plan and site briefing after any eagle interaction or change in nest status.

After habitat disturbance: Post-clearance checks

The project remains responsible for eagle protection after vegetation removal. Check retained habitat, confirm that controls remain effective and monitor any nest or breeding territory affected by the works.

  • Inspect the cleared edge and retained habitat for injured birds, displaced nest material, fallen nests, carcasses and new hazards immediately after each clearing stage.
  • Recheck retained nest trees and nearby prominent trees for damage, changed access, lighting, noise and other effects from the completed works.
  • Confirm that no machinery, spoil, fencing or access track has encroached into the approved retained area.
  • Remove temporary hazards that could attract an eagle to vehicle movements or unsafe feeding locations, subject to wildlife and waste requirements.

After habitat disturbance: Monitoring and control maintenance

Breeding response: A breeding pair may abandon a nest if disturbed while preparing to lay eggs.

  • Monitor a known or suspected nest through the relevant breeding period where the project may have affected the nest area or access to foraging habitat.
  • Repeat searches during the Tasmanian breeding period from August to January, and sometimes into late February, when required by the management plan or approval.
  • Maintain exclusion fencing, nest markers, speed controls, lighting controls and no-go areas until the ecologist confirms that the risk has ended.
  • Investigate reduced nest use, abandoned breeding, repeated avoidance or unusual bird behaviour and refer the findings to the approval authority where required.

After habitat disturbance: Close-out and reporting

  • Submit the final fauna report with survey effort, nest and observation maps, clearing dates, controls, incidents, animal outcomes, monitoring results and photographs.
  • Submit verified occurrence and nest records to the relevant state wildlife database and retain the record of submission.
  • Complete any EPBC Act, state approval or incident reporting required by the project conditions.
  • Implement any approved offset, compensatory habitat or land management obligation where impacts cannot be avoided or minimised.
  • Keep the site induction and fauna management records available for audit and future maintenance works.

Rehabilitation actions: Restore habitat structure

Rehabilitation should restore safe foraging areas and retain or replace the structures used for nesting and perching. The species can use modified country, but nesting resources and suitable prey habitat remain important, particularly where clearing has reduced tall trees.

Nest structure: Nests are large stick structures lined with fresh twigs and leaves, and may reach about 1.8 metres across and 3 metres deep.

  • Re-establish connected wooded areas and open foraging areas around retained forest and nest trees.
  • Use locally appropriate native trees that can develop into tall emergent nest and perch trees, while retaining existing mature live and dead trees wherever possible.
  • Do not rely on young plantings as an immediate replacement for a mature nest tree, because the species usually selects a prominent tall tree and may reuse a nest for many years.
  • Reinstate logs, ground cover and other native structural habitat removed for temporary access or compounds where this does not create a safety or fire hazard.
  • Control weeds so planted and regenerating native vegetation can establish and maintain suitable prey habitat.

Rehabilitation actions: Nest and fauna infrastructure

  • Retain known nest trees and protect them from later maintenance, fire management and access works.
  • Do not install nest boxes as a substitute for a suitable mature nest tree unless a species specialist and the relevant authority approve the design and location.
  • Do not build artificial nests or move nest material without approval and specialist direction.
  • Keep rehabilitation works, fencing and plant guards away from known flight approaches and nest access routes.
  • Manage temporary fencing so it does not create collision or entanglement hazards for soaring, perched or feeding birds.

Rehabilitation actions: Fire, predators and food resources

Diet: The species eats mostly carrion but also takes live mammals, birds and reptiles; in one north-eastern New South Wales study, prey comprised 50 per cent mammals, 27 per cent birds and 23 per cent reptiles by number.

Poisoning risk: Indirect poisoning through dingo baits and pesticides is identified as a major hazard, and poisoning or bait exposure is a known project risk.

  • Prepare a fire management approach that protects retained nest trees and avoids high disturbance around active nests during breeding.
  • Maintain a mix of native vegetation and open areas that supports mammals, birds and reptiles, which form the eagle's prey.
  • Do not deliberately provide food or carcasses to attract eagles to the site.
  • Manage rabbits and pest animals in accordance with approved environmental and animal welfare requirements, recognising that rabbits can be an important local food source but are not the only prey.
  • Prevent pesticide and bait exposure, and remove or secure contaminated carcasses and bait where project activities could expose eagles.

Rehabilitation actions: Monitoring and success measures

  • Monitor survival of planted trees, weed cover, retained nest trees, habitat connectivity and any erosion or access damage until the rehabilitation objectives are met.
  • Use area searches or transects to check whether eagles continue to use the retained and rehabilitated area for soaring, perching, nesting or foraging.
  • Record nest use, territorial displays, repeated sightings, prey habitat condition and any injured or dead birds during monitoring.
  • Treat successful retention of an active nest tree, continued use of the territory and stable rehabilitated vegetation as key indicators, together with compliance with approval conditions.
  • Adjust planting, weed control, fencing, fire planning or access controls if monitoring shows that the site is causing disturbance or is not restoring suitable habitat.

Sources