Water Frog (Papurana daemeli)

Conservation status

Northern Territory, Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1976: Near threatened.

Breeding season

The Water Frog is a tropical freshwater frog, with breeding activity most likely during the wetter months in the Northern Territory and Queensland. Timing can vary between regions and years, and the species' breeding biology is poorly documented, so site observations should guide decisions.

Breeding mode: Eggs are laid in freshwater. Detailed breeding behaviour is not recorded.

Clutch size: Not recorded.

Incubation period: Not recorded.

Tadpole development: Tadpoles develop in freshwater. The duration of development is not recorded.

Fledging or weaning: Not applicable. Young frogs leave the water after metamorphosis.

Age at maturity: Not recorded.

Breeding frequency: Not recorded. Breeding may occur more than once during favourable wet conditions.

Seasonal activity may start earlier, finish later or occur outside this pattern after substantial rain, so surveys should cover suitable freshwater habitat and nearby moist shelter throughout the works period.

• Adult activity and calling: Adults are likely to be most active around freshwater habitat during wet conditions, particularly after rain.
• Mating and egg laying: Breeding is expected to be concentrated in the tropical wet season, but local timing may differ.
• Eggs and tadpoles: Eggs and tadpoles may be present after spawning and while suitable water bodies remain filled.
• Young frogs and local dispersal: Recently metamorphosed frogs may disperse through damp ground cover and along drainage lines after the wet season.
• Highest clearing risk: Clearing and construction are most likely to harm adults, eggs, tadpoles and recently metamorphosed frogs when wet-season water bodies and surrounding moist habitat are occupied.

Identification: Appearance

The Water Frog is a robust freshwater frog that can be difficult to find by day. Search moist cover near water, then confirm records from photographs, calls or an experienced frog surveyor.

Adults are medium to large frogs with a strong body and long hind legs. Colour varies from brown or olive to grey brown, often with darker markings and a paler underside or lip.

Juveniles can look quite different from adults and may be overlooked during broad fauna searches. Handle frogs only when necessary, using clean, powder free gloves and established hygiene procedures.

Identification: Calls and similar species

The call is a frog call rather than an echolocation sound. Calling activity is most likely at night and after rain or rising humidity. Call identification should be checked against local reference recordings because several northern Australian frogs can call from the same wetlands.

Do not identify this species from colour alone. Use body shape, the local species list, habitat and a clear photograph together.

• Record the date, time, weather, waterbody and exact location of any calling frog.
• Avoid repeated disturbance while trying to obtain a call recording.

Identification: Field signs

The most useful field signs are live frogs, calls, tadpoles and eggs or egg masses in suitable freshwater. Frogs may be exposed on wet ground, at the water edge or on low vegetation after rain.

There is no reliable nest, whitewash, stain or odour sign that can be used to confirm this species. Droppings are not a practical identification tool on most works sites.

• Photograph the frog in place where possible.
• Record the nearby water type, bank vegetation, ground cover and likely escape route.
• Treat an occupied wetland, drain, creek edge or damp refuge as potential habitat until checked by a suitably experienced person.

Distribution: Australian range

The Water Frog is a northern Australian species mapped in the Northern Territory and Queensland. Records are associated with the tropical north, but local occurrence can be patchy and the species is not expected at every wetland.

In the Northern Territory, look for the species in the Top End and other suitable tropical freshwater areas, including wetland and stream systems with dense cover. In Queensland, suitable areas include the tropical north and Cape York region, with records also possible in other connected northern freshwater landscapes.

Use the project area species database and recent local records before finalising survey effort. A lack of a recent record does not rule out presence where suitable wet habitat remains.

Mapped states and territories: Northern Territory and Queensland

Regional setting: Northern tropical Australia, especially freshwater systems with dense vegetation

Distribution: Site scale distribution

Water Frogs can move between wetland, creek and vegetated refuge areas. A site inspection should therefore include the waterbody, its margins, connected drainage lines and nearby moist cover, not only the proposed clearing footprint.

Map all likely habitat that could be affected indirectly by dewatering, sediment movement, changed overland flow, lighting or access tracks.

• Check wetland edges and drainage lines on both sides of the works area.
• Include retained vegetation and adjoining land where frogs may shelter or move during wet weather.
• Keep a record of negative searches, including the weather, time and habitats inspected.

Habitat: Freshwater features

The Water Frog is tied to freshwater and moist terrestrial habitat. It may use both natural and modified water features where water quality, cover and movement routes remain suitable.

Look for the species around permanent or seasonally wet creeks, lagoons, billabongs, swamps, floodplain depressions and drainage channels. Slow flowing or still water with vegetated margins is more useful than a bare, rapidly disturbed channel.

Include shallow margins, pools, seepage areas and places where water persists after surrounding ground has dried.

• Freshwater wetlands and floodplain depressions
• Creek lines, pools and vegetated banks
• Damp drainage lines and wet areas connected to larger waterbodies
• Artificial or modified water features that retain suitable cover and water quality

Habitat: Vegetation and ground structure

Dense grass, sedges, reeds, low shrubs, fallen timber, leaf litter and overhanging vegetation provide cover around water. Riparian forest, paperbark or pandanus dominated margins and tropical wetland vegetation can all be relevant where they retain damp refuges.

Bare ground beside water should not be treated as the full habitat. Frogs may shelter in nearby vegetation or under cover and move to the water after dark.

Habitat: Survey conditions

Survey is most productive at night, after rain or when humidity is high, when frogs are moving and calling. During dry or hot conditions, search moist cover and the remaining wet areas rather than relying on open ground searches.

Where the species is poorly known locally, use a combination of daytime habitat inspection, night spotlighting and call surveys. Scale the effort to the size of the works area, the amount of connected wet habitat and the Northern Territory or Queensland listing requirements.

Foraging habitat: Places to search

Water Frogs forage close to freshwater and in damp vegetation, usually at night. Their feeding habitat can extend beyond the visible water edge, particularly where wet ground and dense cover connect the waterbody to surrounding vegetation.

Inspect wet leaf litter, sedge and grass margins, low vegetation, muddy edges, fallen timber and shaded ground near pools and drainage lines. Check the sheltered side of vegetation clumps and objects that retain moisture.

Spotlighting should cover both the water edge and adjacent terrestrial habitat. Move slowly and avoid trampling likely refuge areas.

• Vegetated margins of pools, creeks and swamps
• Moist leaf litter and dense ground cover
• Shaded areas beneath fallen timber or low vegetation
• Damp floodplain ground and connected drainage lines

Foraging habitat: Food and feeding signs

The species feeds on small invertebrates and other suitable prey. Feeding remains are not a reliable field sign, and there is no practical way to separate Water Frog feeding areas from those of other large frogs without observing the animal or confirming the species by other means.

• Record frogs actively feeding or moving through the site.
• Avoid broad insecticide use near occupied wetland margins unless it has been assessed and controlled under the project environmental plan.

Foraging habitat: Works controls

Retain damp cover and a vegetated buffer around freshwater habitat where practicable. Keep lighting, vehicle movement, spoil storage and night works away from wetland edges.

If frogs are found in the work area, stop and obtain advice from the fauna spotter catcher or project ecologist before moving them. Follow the approved handling, hygiene and relocation procedure.

Breeding habitat: Breeding places

The Water Frog breeds in freshwater, with activity linked to wet conditions and suitable water levels. Breeding sites can be missed if surveys are restricted to the dry season or to the centre of a waterbody.

Search shallow margins, quiet pools, flooded depressions, swamps and slow sections of creeks for eggs, tadpoles and calling adults. Dense emergent vegetation and submerged cover may be used within or beside the water.

Water can be temporary or persistent. Retain the connection between breeding water, vegetated margins and nearby sheltering habitat.

Breeding habitat: Timing and survey

Rainfall and local wet season conditions are likely to influence breeding activity. Night call surveys after suitable rain should be combined with daytime searches for eggs and tadpoles.

If a project may affect a wetland or other suspected breeding place, survey before clearing, dewatering, filling or changes to drainage. Repeat checks when water levels or weather change.

• Search the full margin, including shallow backwaters and inundated vegetation.
• Use clean equipment between waterbodies to reduce disease transfer.
• Record eggs, tadpoles, calling adults and the water conditions separately.

Breeding habitat: Queensland requirements

In Queensland, the Water Frog is protected wildlife. Tampering with its breeding place needs a species management program. Obtain the relevant approvals and advice before disturbing occupied or potential breeding habitat.

Trigger for planning: Any clearing, filling, dewatering or drainage change that may affect a breeding place should be assessed before works begin.

Sheltering habitat: Likely refuges

By day, Water Frogs may shelter in cool, damp places close to water. These refuges can be small and may be hidden under vegetation or debris, so clearing methods need to allow for frogs outside the open wetland.

Search under fallen timber, leaf litter, dense grass, sedges, low shrubs, rocks and other damp cover near freshwater. Bank cavities, soft wet ground and shaded vegetation may also provide shelter.

Check the land between the waterbody and the proposed clearing area, especially where vegetation forms a continuous moist corridor.

• Shaded creek and wetland margins
• Dense ground cover and sedgelands
• Leaf litter and fallen timber
• Damp banks, floodplain cover and vegetated drainage lines

Sheltering habitat: Clearing and fauna handling

Before clearing, inspect and mark retained wet habitat and likely refuge areas. Use a staged approach where practicable, moving from the least suitable habitat towards retained habitat so animals have an opportunity to leave.

A fauna spotter catcher should check machinery paths, debris piles, vegetation to be removed and temporary water diversions. Do not place captured frogs in unapproved waterbodies.

• Keep frogs cool, shaded and damp during any short term holding.
• Use separate clean equipment between sites and waterbodies.
• Release or relocate animals only under the project procedure and relevant approvals.

Sheltering habitat: Artificial shelter

Water Frogs may use damp artificial cover around sites, such as stored materials, pipes, boards or debris. These areas should be checked before removal, particularly after rain and near freshwater.

Remove potential shelter progressively and inspect each item before loading or crushing it.

Threats: Loss of wetland and riparian habitat

Development can affect Water Frogs through direct injury and through gradual loss of water quality, cover and movement routes. The species is Near threatened in the Northern Territory, so avoidable impacts should be prevented rather than managed after clearing.

Clearing, filling, excavation and construction can remove breeding water, wet margins and daytime refuges. Riparian vegetation loss also increases exposure, erosion and drying.

Keep the clearing footprint tight and retain connected vegetation around freshwater wherever practicable.

• Clearly mark no go areas before works start.
• Avoid unnecessary removal of fallen timber and ground cover near water.
• Rehabilitate disturbed margins with local native vegetation and stable natural drainage.

Threats: Changed hydrology and sediment

Dewatering, altered drainage, floodplain disconnection, erosion and sediment discharge can reduce breeding habitat and affect eggs and tadpoles. Polluted runoff, concrete washout, fuels and other contaminants can also harm frogs and their prey.

Use sediment, erosion and water quality controls before earthworks begin. Keep spoil and chemicals away from wetland margins and drainage lines.

Threats: Direct injury, disturbance and disease

Frogs can be crushed by vehicles, machinery, stockpiles and debris removal. Night lighting, vibration and repeated access can disturb animals at the water edge and during breeding.

Chytrid fungus and other pathogens can be moved between waterbodies on wet equipment, footwear and handling gear. Apply site hygiene procedures and clean equipment between separate drainage systems.

• Use fauna spotter catcher checks during clearing near suitable habitat.
• Limit night vehicle movements beside wetlands.
• Do not handle frogs with bare hands or transfer water between sites.

Threats: Invasive species and land management

Cane Toads and other invasive species can affect native frogs and alter wetland communities. Fire, grazing, weed invasion and unmanaged access can remove ground cover or dry and compact wet refuges.

Manage these pressures as part of the broader site environmental plan. Report unusual frog mortality, large numbers of sick frogs or suspected cane toad impacts through the project reporting process.

• Maintain dense native cover around retained water.
• Prevent sediment, rubbish and chemicals entering freshwater.
• Review controls after heavy rain, flooding, dewatering or major changes to site drainage.

Survey methodology: 1. Desktop assessment

Water Frogs are most detectable in warm, humid conditions, especially after rain and during periods of local breeding activity. Survey effort should be adapted to the site because the species is not well known across all of its range in the Northern Territory and Queensland.

Map permanent and seasonal water bodies, drainage lines, floodplain depressions, swamps, lagoons and connected riparian vegetation before fieldwork.

Check recent records, land tenure, threatened species databases, local rainfall and flood history, and any previous fauna surveys.

Identify likely movement routes between water and shelter, including vegetated banks, wet grass, leaf litter, logs and rock cover.

Survey methodology: 2. Night searches and call surveys

Survey after dark using head torches and hand-held spotlights. Walk slowly around wetland margins, stream edges, drainage features and nearby ground cover.

Listen for calling frogs before entering the area. Record calling activity, weather, recent rainfall, water level and the condition of the waterbody.

Use repeated surveys in suitable wet conditions where the project could affect habitat. A single dry-weather visit is not a reliable indication that frogs are absent.

• Search during the warmer and wetter part of the local season when frogs are active.
• Avoid surveying in unsafe conditions, including flooding, electrical storms or rapidly rising water.
• Have an experienced frog ecologist confirm unfamiliar calls where possible.

Survey methodology: 3. Day searches and aquatic checks

Inspect damp refuges, vegetation at the water edge, leaf litter, logs, rocks and artificial debris during the day, replacing all cover carefully.

Where appropriate and authorised, inspect shallow water for eggs, tadpoles and metamorphosing frogs. Do not disturb breeding habitat unnecessarily.

Use clean equipment between waterbodies to reduce the spread of chytrid fungus and other pathogens. Follow current hygiene procedures for amphibian surveys.

Survey methodology: 4. Records and evidence

Record the date, start and finish time, observer names, survey method, effort, weather, recent rainfall and survey conditions.

Map every detection with a GPS point or track. Record the frog's location, behaviour, life stage, habitat, waterbody condition and photographs where this can be done without handling.

Record negative results with the same level of detail as positive results, including areas searched and conditions that may have reduced detectability.

Before habitat disturbance: 1. Approvals and permits

Plan works to avoid water, wetland and riparian habitat wherever practicable. Because Water Frogs are listed as near threatened in the Northern Territory and are treated as protected wildlife in Queensland, confirm the approvals pathway before clearing or handling begins.

Determine whether the proposal may affect a listed matter under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. Seek an EPBC referral or approval where the Act requires it.

In Queensland, obtain advice on any species management program required before tampering with a Water Frog breeding place. Secure all relevant permits for taking, keeping, moving or handling protected wildlife.

In the Northern Territory, check current wildlife permit and approval requirements before survey, capture, relocation or disturbance. Confirm any land manager, waterway and clearing approvals.

• Keep copies of approvals, permit conditions and the fauna management plan on site.
• Use only appropriately authorised fauna spotter catchers and handlers.
• Escalate uncertainty to the project ecologist and the relevant government agency before work starts.

Before habitat disturbance: 2. Avoidance and work design

Retain waterbodies, wetland margins, drainage lines, riparian vegetation and connected ground cover in the project design.

Keep machinery, spoil, fuels, concrete washout, sediment controls and access tracks out of breeding places and likely movement routes.

Set site-specific no-go areas and buffers using the wetland boundary, habitat quality, hydrology, survey results and approval conditions. Do not apply a generic buffer where a qualified ecologist has identified a greater risk.

• Fence exclusion areas before machinery arrives.
• Use clear signs and map exclusion areas in the site induction.
• Prevent sediment, contaminated water, rubbish and changes to drainage from entering habitat.

Before habitat disturbance: 3. Pre-clearance survey

Complete a targeted pre-clearance survey shortly before disturbance, with timing chosen around local rainfall and frog activity. Recheck the area if heavy rain or flooding occurs between the survey and clearing.

Search the proposed footprint, access routes, stockpile areas, drainage works and the edge of retained habitat.

If frogs, eggs, tadpoles or an active breeding place are found, stop planning for that area and obtain ecological and regulatory advice before proceeding.

• Use the same hygiene controls as during formal surveys.
• Mark all detections and breeding places on the site plan.
• Do not rely on a daytime inspection alone.

Before habitat disturbance: 4. Timing and induction

Schedule clearing outside periods of concentrated breeding activity where local surveys show that this is feasible. In northern Australia, use local rainfall, wet season conditions and site records rather than assuming fixed calendar months.

Brief all workers on the species, exclusion areas, stop-work authority, hygiene requirements and the procedure for injured or trapped animals.

Nominate the fauna spotter catcher or ecologist who can stop work and make decisions in the field.

During habitat disturbance: 1. Sequential clearing

Use a staged clearing process that gives frogs a chance to move into retained habitat. A fauna spotter catcher must have authority to stop work whenever an animal, breeding place or unexpected habitat risk is found.

Clear from the disturbed area towards retained habitat, while maintaining an open escape route to suitable, connected cover and water where this is safe and approved.

Remove habitat in stages, starting with smaller vegetation and ground cover before larger vegetation or earthworks. Inspect each stage before machinery moves in.

Keep exclusion fencing, sediment controls and drainage protection intact throughout the work.

• Use low-speed machinery in sensitive areas.
• Stop if frogs are seen moving ahead of machinery or entering plant and materials.
• Do not push frogs, water or sediment into retained habitat.

During habitat disturbance: 2. Handling and relocation

Only authorised and suitably trained people may capture, handle or relocate Water Frogs. Use clean, damp equipment and minimise handling time.

Place a captured frog in a secure, ventilated container with suitable moisture and shade. Keep species and locations separate where disease controls require it.

Relocate an animal only under the approved fauna management plan or permit, and only to suitable nearby habitat identified by the project ecologist.

• Never release a frog into an unassessed waterbody.
• Do not transport frogs between catchments unless specifically authorised.
• Record the capture location, release location, time, condition and handler.

During habitat disturbance: 3. Breeding places and unexpected finds

Stop work if eggs, tadpoles, calling aggregations, recently metamorphosed frogs or other evidence of an active breeding place is found.

Protect the breeding place from machinery, vibration, sediment, altered drainage, lighting and contaminated water until the ecologist and relevant authority confirm the response.

Treat a group of frogs using the same waterbody or shelter area as a potential local aggregation. Do not clear around it until the risk has been assessed.

• Maintain a clearly marked exclusion area.
• Obtain any required Queensland species management program approval before tampering with a breeding place.
• Document the decision to resume, modify or abandon the work.

During habitat disturbance: 4. Injured animals and incidents

For an injured frog, stop nearby work and contact the nominated wildlife carer, veterinarian or fauna ecologist. Keep the animal cool, shaded, quiet and secure, and do not apply treatments unless directed by a qualified wildlife professional.

Report deaths, injuries, unauthorised handling, breeding-place disturbance, water pollution and breaches of approval conditions through the project's incident process and to the relevant authority where required.

Record the location, time, cause or suspected cause, photographs, people involved, immediate actions and final disposition.

After habitat disturbance: 1. Post-clearance checks

Do not close out clearing until the site has been checked and all fauna and habitat actions are documented. Post-clearance work should confirm that exclusion areas, drainage controls and retained wetland habitat remain effective.

Inspect the cleared footprint, retained edges, trenches, pits, pipes, stockpiles and temporary water bodies for trapped or displaced frogs.

Check after rain and before backfilling excavations or removing fauna controls where the project risk assessment requires it.

Remove or modify artificial traps, including open pipes, deep pits and containers that can hold water or trap frogs.

• Have the fauna spotter catcher sign off each completed clearing stage.
• Keep suitable escape ramps or cover in excavations that cannot be closed promptly, where approved and safe.
• Continue hygiene controls until all amphibian handling and waterbody work is complete.

After habitat disturbance: 2. Reporting and records

Provide the project manager and relevant authorities with the required fauna, permit and incident reports within the specified timeframes.

Update the species record with survey effort, detections, relocations, breeding evidence, injuries, deaths and habitat impacts.

Retain maps, photographs, field sheets, permits, induction records and decisions made during stop-work events.

After habitat disturbance: 3. Monitoring relocated animals and habitat

Where animals were relocated or breeding habitat was retained, monitor the receiving habitat and project controls using methods and timing set by the ecologist or approval conditions.

Check water quality, water levels, sediment movement, vegetation condition, barriers to movement and evidence of frogs or calling activity.

Do not recapture or disturb relocated frogs unless this is authorised and needed to meet the monitoring plan.

After habitat disturbance: 4. Incident review

Review any mortality, injury, breeding-place disturbance or unexpected absence of frogs with the fauna ecologist and construction supervisor.

Identify whether the cause was timing, inadequate exclusion, lighting, drainage, machinery movement, poor induction or another site factor.

Update the work method, buffer, induction and monitoring requirements before the next clearing stage.

Rehabilitation actions: 1. Restore water and shelter

Rehabilitation should restore the wetland functions and movement routes that Water Frogs need, rather than simply replacing cleared vegetation. Use local ecological advice because breeding and shelter requirements can vary between sites and are not fully documented across the species' range.

Reinstate natural drainage patterns and avoid sudden changes in water depth, flow, flooding or drying cycles.

Revegetate wetland margins, drainage lines and riparian areas with locally appropriate native species that provide shade, cover and stable banks.

Retain or replace suitable ground refuges such as leaf litter, logs and coarse natural material, while avoiding materials that can trap frogs or introduce contaminants.

• Use clean soil, mulch and water in rehabilitation areas.
• Control erosion and sediment before planting.
• Keep vehicles and stockpiles out of recovering wetland margins.

Rehabilitation actions: 2. Breeding habitat structures

Do not install nest boxes or bat boxes as a default measure for Water Frogs. These structures are designed for other animal groups and are not a substitute for suitable wetland habitat.

Consider artificial shallow wet areas, temporary refuge structures or other breeding habitat measures only where the project ecologist has identified a site-specific need and the design matches local hydrology.

Obtain approval before creating, altering or maintaining a potential breeding place, particularly in Queensland where tampering with a breeding place may require a species management program.

• Use natural or purpose-designed materials that do not leach contaminants.
• Keep artificial features connected to suitable cover and protected from predatory or domestic animals where practicable.
• Monitor any replacement feature for use, water quality, disease risk and maintenance needs.

Rehabilitation actions: 3. Weeds, predators and lighting

Remove invasive plants that reduce wetland structure or alter water movement, using methods that do not contaminate water or harm frogs.

Limit artificial light directed at wetland edges, movement routes and retained vegetation. Use shielded, low-spill lighting and switch it off when safety requirements allow.

Manage rubbish, open pipes, pits, introduced predators and other site hazards through the construction and operational phases.

Rehabilitation actions: 4. Long-term monitoring

Set monitoring triggers for water quality, hydrology, vegetation establishment, weed cover, erosion, lighting and frog use of restored habitat.

Use repeat night searches and call surveys in suitable wet conditions, supported by daytime habitat inspections where needed.

Compare results with the pre-work survey and approval commitments, and repair or redesign rehabilitation measures if habitat is not functioning.

Sources

• Occurrence records for the distribution map, Atlas of Living Australia: https://biocache.ala.org.au/