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Tussock Skink (Pseudemoia pagenstecheri)

The Tussock Skink is a diurnal, ground dwelling skink of grassy habitats, including treeless grasslands and high elevation woodland with tussock groundcover. It is listed as Endangered in Victoria and Vulnerable in Tasmania, and its habitat is affected by clearing, degradation and fragmentation, including on infrastructure and construction sites.

Conservation status

Victoria, Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988: Endangered.

Tasmania, Threatened Species Protection Act 1995: Vulnerable.

Breeding season

The Tussock Skink mates from late summer to winter, ovulates in spring and gives birth mainly in summer. Clearing can affect mating adults, females carrying embryos, newborns and sheltering animals, so avoid peak periods where practicable and inspect tussocks, rocks and fallen timber before disturbance.

Reproductive mode: Viviparous, giving birth to live young. The species is also described as placentotrophic.

Litter size: Two to nine offspring in mainland montane populations, with an average of 4.5. Lowland populations produce three to 11 young, or four to 11 in lowland Tasmanian and basalt plains populations.

Incubation or gestation: Not recorded. Spring ovulation and fertilisation precede summer births.

Size at hatching or birth: Not recorded.

Age at maturity: Assumed to be about one year.

Nest or egg sites: Not recorded. The species gives birth to live young, and no specific birth site is identified.

Breeding frequency: Not recorded.

Confirm timing locally before clearing, particularly where rainfall, temperature and elevation alter basking activity, mating or birth timing.

  • Mating: Mating is reported from late summer to early winter and also as occurring in winter. The peak marking covers June to August, the documented winter period; timing may extend from February into August across the range.
  • Gravid females: Females ovulate and fertilise eggs in spring, then give birth in summer. September to December is an operational representation of the period when females may be carrying embryos, because gestation length is not recorded.
  • Births: Births are reported from early summer to early autumn, in summer, and specifically in December and January. December and January are marked as peak months, with February and March retained as possible birth months under the broader early summer to early autumn account.
  • Newborns: Newborns are most likely from December to January, when births are specifically recorded, but may remain present into February and March under the reported early summer to early autumn birth period. No separate juvenile emergence period is recorded.
  • Active period: The species is diurnal and basks on fallen timber, rocks and grass tussocks. Activity is recorded in all months when conditions are favourable, with no documented seasonal peak.
  • Winter inactivity: No species-specific brumation or winter inactivity is recorded, and the species may be active in all months when conditions are favourable. As general practice for a temperate southern Australian skink, treat June to August as a period when cold conditions may increase sheltering in tussocks, rocks, timber and other ground cover.
  • Highest clearing risk: Risk is highest during the documented winter mating period and around December to January births. Clearing can also affect gravid females from spring into early summer, newborns into early autumn, and animals sheltering during cold winter conditions.

Identification

The Tussock Skink is a small, prominently striped skink associated with grassy groundcover. It is most likely to be detected when basking in warm conditions or moving through tussocks and other low vegetation.

The back and head are greyish-brown to olive brown. A dark brown vertebral line is usually present, with two or more dark paravertebral lines. Lowland animals are often heavily flecked with white and dark spots on the back and tail.

A cream dorso-lateral stripe runs from the base of the tail towards the neck. It is often dark edged and is centred on the fourth scale row, or between the third and fourth scale rows, from the centre of the back. The upper lateral zone is broad and brown, with a continuous pale mid-lateral stripe running from the upper lip to the ear and backwards along the body and tail.

The underside is whitish, sometimes becoming pale grey or bronze towards the rear.

Body size: Not provided in the supplied documents.

Weight: Not provided in the supplied documents.

Identification: Sex differences

In breeding males, the pale mid-lateral stripe commonly becomes orange to red from behind the forelimb and extends onto the sides of the tail. This colour change can assist with sexing during the breeding period.

Identification: Field signs and similar species

The supplied documents do not describe diagnostic tracks, scats, calls, sloughs, eyeshine or other indirect field signs. They also do not provide a formal comparison with similar skinks.

For field identification, record the full dorsal and lateral stripe pattern, flecking, body colour, location, habitat and a clear photograph where handling is authorised. Do not rely on habitat alone, particularly where other striped grass skinks occur.

Distribution: States and bioregional settings

The species has a disjunct distribution across south-eastern Australia. The supplied records identify populations in Victoria and New South Wales, with a separate Tasmanian conservation listing.

In Victoria, the Victorian Volcanic Plains population extends from north and west of Melbourne to the Casterton area. This lowland form occurs in the Victorian Volcanic Plains, a warm temperate region that has been extensively cleared.

In New South Wales, the species occurs along the Great Dividing Range, including high elevation forest and woodland in the central ranges, northern tablelands and Nandewar Range. The supplied specimen records include Mount Kaputar National Park, Coolah Tops National Park, Riamukka State Forest, Stewarts Brook State Forest and Kosciuszko National Park.

The Tasmanian status table lists the Tussock Skink as Vulnerable. The supplied documents do not define its Tasmanian range or identify Tasmanian bioregions.

Distribution: Subpopulations and trend

The Victorian Volcanic Plains population is described as occurring in small, usually isolated remnants. Genetic evidence indicates several disjunct regional populations across the broader range, including southern montane, central New South Wales and northern tablelands populations, with the Nandewar population an isolated outlier.

The Victorian Volcanic Plains form has experienced severe habitat loss and an apparent recent, widespread decline. Losses have also been reported from some relatively intact remnants, but the causes of those losses are not resolved.

Victorian Volcanic Plains area of occupancy: Estimated at 864 square kilometres using 2 by 2 kilometre grids from accepted post-1970 Victorian Biodiversity Atlas records.

Estimated Victorian reduction: A suspected 20 to 50 percent reduction over the next 10 to 12 years, and over a 10 to 12 year period including past and future change.

Population size: The number of mature individuals is not known.

Habitat: Lowland habitat

Habitat varies between lowland grassland populations and high elevation woodland populations. Across both settings, tussock grass groundcover and a relatively open ground layer are recurring features.

The Victorian Volcanic Plains form is predominantly terrestrial and is usually found in grassy, treeless areas, often associated with rocks. It occurs in grassy ecosystems of the warm temperate zone.

Remaining habitat is commonly confined to small remnants within a largely cleared agricultural and development matrix. Retain connected grassland remnants, rocky patches and fallen timber during site planning and clearing.

Habitat: High elevation habitat

The broader species range includes high elevation woodland habitat with tussock grass groundcover. New South Wales populations occur in high elevation forest habitat of the central ranges and northern tablelands, and in montane environments farther south.

The supplied documents do not provide a species-wide elevation range, vegetation community list or climatic threshold.

Foraging habitat: Feeding habitat

The supplied documents do not provide a detailed diet, prey list or measured foraging range. They indicate that food resources are associated with the grassy ground layer and that changes to invertebrate communities may affect the species.

The species uses grassy groundcover in both lowland grassland and high elevation woodland settings. Its lowland habitat includes tussocks, rocks and other low ground structures where it can move and bask.

Introduced unpalatable invertebrates have been reported to remove food sources and dominate invertebrate biomass at the expense of previous prey taxa in some Victorian Volcanic Plains remnants.

Documented diet: Not specified in the supplied documents.

Foraging range: Not specified in the supplied documents.

  • Avoid removing tussock groundcover, rocky patches and fallen timber beyond the approved disturbance footprint.
  • Where practical, prevent the spread of introduced invertebrates and retain a varied native ground layer.

Breeding habitat: Breeding biology

The Tussock Skink mates in winter and produces live young rather than laying eggs. Breeding habitat is likely to be within the same grassy, tussock dominated sites used for basking and shelter.

Mating occurs in winter. Ovulation and fertilisation occur in the following spring, and live young are born from early summer to early autumn.

Females in lowland populations produce 3 to 11 young. The supplied documents do not provide a gestation period or a separate litter size for high elevation populations.

Mating: Winter.

Ovulation and fertilisation: Following spring.

Births: Early summer to early autumn.

Litter size: 3 to 11 young in lowland populations.

Gestation: Not provided in the supplied documents.

Age at maturity: Assumed to be about 1 year.

Longevity: Assumed to be about 5 years.

Breeding habitat: Breeding habitat features

Retain intact tussock grass, low vegetation, rocks and fallen timber within occupied or potentially occupied grassland and woodland remnants. These features provide basking and ground-level cover during the breeding period.

The supplied documents do not identify a nest, burrow or specific birth site.

Sheltering habitat: Known cover features

The species shelters within low ground vegetation and uses surface structures for basking and cover. Specific refuge dimensions and underground shelter sites are not provided.

The Tussock Skink basks on fallen timber, rocks and within grass tussocks. These features are therefore relevant to both daytime activity and refuge availability.

Grass tussocks and dense groundcover are particularly important in otherwise open grassland remnants. Avoid stockpiling materials, grading or repeated vehicle movements across these features.

Burrows, hollows and dens: No species-specific burrow, hollow or den information is provided.

Refuge dimensions: Not provided in the supplied documents.

  • Retain fallen timber, rocks and tussock clumps within the approved retention areas.
  • Before clearing, inspect grass tussocks, rocks and timber that will be disturbed, following the relevant permit and fauna handling requirements.

Threats: Clearing and fragmentation

The main documented threats are habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation, with additional concern about unexplained losses in remnants and changes to invertebrate communities.

The Victorian Volcanic Plains have been largely cleared, and remaining populations commonly persist in small and isolated remnants. Continued clearing is identified as an ongoing threat.

Limited dispersal ability and barriers between habitat patches contribute to severe fragmentation. Construction access, temporary compounds, linear infrastructure and edge widening can remove or isolate occupied tussock habitat.

  • Avoid clearing grassland and woodland remnants until targeted habitat assessment and any required fauna management approvals are complete.
  • Keep retained habitat connected where possible, and avoid creating new gaps between known or potential habitat patches.

Threats: Other documented pressures

Habitat degradation and the loss of native invertebrate prey are documented concerns. Introduced unpalatable invertebrates can dominate invertebrate biomass in some remnants.

The species has apparently disappeared from some remnants, including areas described as relatively intact. The cause of these losses is not understood, so site-specific monitoring and careful incident recording are important.

Road impacts: Not specifically documented in the supplied documents.

Fire: Not specifically documented in the supplied documents.

Predation: Not specifically documented in the supplied documents.

Disease: Not specifically documented in the supplied documents.

Hydrology change: Not specifically documented in the supplied documents.

  • Record any Tussock Skink observations, relocations, injuries and mortality before, during and after works.
  • Minimise unnecessary disturbance to rocks, fallen timber and tussock cover, and control weeds and introduced organisms in accordance with the project environmental management plan.

Survey methodology: 1. Habitat assessment and record search

No species specific survey guideline is included in the supplied documents. Survey effort should therefore target the Tussock Skink's known activity and habitat: terrestrial grassy areas, tussock cover, fallen timber and rocks, with searches timed for diurnal basking activity.

Map all grassy, treeless or lightly wooded areas, tussock cover, rocks, fallen timber and connected habitat within and around the disturbance footprint.

Review state biodiversity records and project records before fieldwork, with particular attention to Victorian Volcanic Plains records and high elevation woodland with tussock groundcover in New South Wales and Victoria.

Treat small and isolated habitat remnants as potentially occupied because Victorian Volcanic Plains populations persist in small, isolated remnants and the species has limited dispersal ability.

Survey methodology: 2. Diurnal visual searches

Search during daylight when skinks can bask on fallen timber, rocks or within grass tussocks.

Prioritise warm, suitable basking conditions and inspect the edges and interiors of tussocks, rocks, logs and other ground refuges without unnecessarily disturbing them.

Use slow, systematic transects through each habitat patch and record the transect length, search time, weather, temperature if measured, habitat searched and the area covered.

Repeat searches where conditions are unsuitable or visibility is poor, because the supplied documents provide no validated single-visit detection rate or minimum transect effort.

Activity pattern: Diurnal heliotherm

Observed basking sites: Fallen timber, rocks and grass tussocks

Survey methodology: 3. Targeted refuge and pre-clearance searches

Before clearing, inspect rocks, fallen timber, dense tussocks and other ground cover that will be removed or disturbed.

Search each feature immediately before handling it and inspect the exposed ground and remaining cover after removal.

Use a fauna spotter catcher who is authorised for reptiles under the relevant state or territory requirements, and retain any captured skink in accordance with the approved fauna management plan.

Record the exact location, habitat feature, weather, time, observer, identification confidence and action taken for every detection.

Survey methodology: Minimum effort and reporting

  • Set the search area and effort before fieldwork and report the area searched, transect length, search hours, number of observers, dates, weather and any constraints.
  • Do not describe a site as unoccupied from a single unsuccessful search when habitat is suitable, because the documents identify small remnant populations, limited dispersal and recent apparent losses from some apparently intact sites.
  • Submit verified records and negative survey information, where requested, to the relevant state wildlife database, including the Victorian Biodiversity Atlas for Victorian work and the equivalent database in the relevant state or territory.
  • Report the taxon as Pseudemoia pagenstecheri and identify the Victorian Volcanic Plains form where that population is being assessed.

Before habitat disturbance: Avoid and minimise

Plan the project around retaining grassy habitat, tussocks, rocks, fallen timber and movement links. This is especially important in the Victorian Volcanic Plains, where habitat loss, fragmentation and small isolated remnants are documented threats.

  • Redesign the disturbance footprint to retain occupied or suitable tussock habitat, rocky patches, fallen timber and connected grassland wherever practicable.
  • Avoid creating new breaks between habitat remnants, particularly where the species has limited dispersal ability and subpopulations may already be severely fragmented.
  • Keep retained habitat free from unnecessary vehicle movements, material storage, compaction, grading and edge disturbance.
  • Treat apparently intact remnants as potentially important because the Victorian assessment reports losses from some relatively intact habitats.

Before habitat disturbance: Approvals and timing

Victorian status in the supplied assessment: Proposed Endangered for Victorian Volcanic Plains populations

Tasmanian status in the supplied profile and: Vulnerable

  • Confirm the applicable state or territory threatened species legislation, survey requirements, handling authority and relocation conditions before work starts.
  • Check the project approval pathway and complete an EPBC Act referral assessment if the proposed action may affect a nationally listed matter; the supplied profile identifies this species as not listed under the EPBC Act.
  • Plan clearing outside periods of highest local activity where the approval and ecological advice allow, while recognising that mating occurs in winter, ovulation and fertilisation occur in spring, and live young are born from early summer to early autumn.
  • Obtain project-specific advice before relying on seasonal avoidance, because the documents do not establish a no-clearance season for this species.

Before habitat disturbance: Site preparation and fauna plan

  • Complete the approved pre-clearance survey shortly before disturbance and update it if the work footprint, timing or habitat condition changes.
  • Mark retained tussocks, rock patches, logs, habitat boundaries and movement links on plans and on the ground before machinery enters the site.
  • Use exclusion fencing or other clearly visible controls where they can prevent machinery and people entering retained habitat without isolating animals from essential habitat.
  • Include daily weather and habitat checks, stop-work triggers, authorised handlers, capture and release procedures, injury response, records and reporting in the fauna management plan.

During habitat disturbance: Daily controls and machinery interface

Keep machinery out of retained habitat and make the spotter catcher part of the work crew's daily clearance sequence. Ground cover must be checked as it is approached, moved or removed.

  • Inspect exclusion fencing, marked habitat and access controls before work each day and repair any breach before disturbance continues.
  • Brief operators and supervisors on the species' appearance, habitat and stop-work procedure before each clearance shift.
  • Position the spotter catcher where they can inspect the next work area before machinery disturbs tussocks, rocks, logs or other cover.
  • Release machinery only after the spotter catcher has completed the agreed inspection and has confirmed that the area is clear or that a controlled fauna response is in place.
  • Use low-impact, staged clearing from the disturbed edge towards retained habitat where practicable, while preventing animals from being driven into active machinery or isolated from suitable cover.

During habitat disturbance: Ground habitat and animal response

  • Inspect rocks, fallen timber and grass tussocks immediately before they are moved, cut, crushed or buried.
  • Have the authorised spotter catcher safely capture a Tussock Skink only where handling is permitted under the approval and fauna management plan.
  • Keep handling to the minimum needed for identification, protection and release, and do not allow untrained workers to handle the animal.
  • Relocate a healthy animal only to nearby suitable retained habitat approved by the project ecologist or regulator, with tussock cover and appropriate rocks or fallen timber where available.
  • Place an injured animal in a secure, ventilated container and transfer it promptly to an authorised wildlife carer or veterinarian under the applicable state or territory arrangements.

During habitat disturbance: Stop work and records

  • Stop work in the immediate area if a Tussock Skink is found in the active work zone, if the spotter catcher cannot inspect the next area safely, or if exclusion controls fail.
  • Stop and seek ecological or regulatory direction if repeated detections, an occupied remnant, unexpected mortality or a previously unrecorded concentration is identified.
  • Record every detection, capture, release, injury, mortality, relocation location, habitat feature, date, time, observer, machinery activity and response.
  • Photograph the animal and habitat where this can be done without delaying safe handling or increasing stress, and retain the coordinates in the project fauna register.

After habitat disturbance: Post-clearance inspection

Post-clearance work should check that the approved footprint was not exceeded and that retained habitat remains connected and usable. Monitoring should be scaled to the level of habitat loss, the approval conditions and any detections during works.

  • Complete a post-clearance walkover of the footprint, access tracks and habitat edges for surviving skinks, injured animals, carcasses, damaged exclusion fencing and unapproved habitat disturbance.
  • Inspect retained tussocks, rocks, fallen timber and connecting habitat for machinery encroachment, soil compaction, weed invasion and newly created barriers.
  • Reopen or maintain approved fauna controls only after the project ecologist confirms that no further clearing or high-risk activity is planned.

After habitat disturbance: Monitoring and reporting

  • Monitor retained and rehabilitated habitat using the same mapped locations and search method used before disturbance so results can be compared.
  • Continue monitoring where animals were detected, where habitat was fragmented, or where the approval or fauna management plan requires it.
  • Report survey effort, detections, relocations, injuries, deaths, habitat retained, habitat disturbed, rehabilitation progress and any corrective action to the proponent and relevant regulator.
  • Submit confirmed records to the relevant state wildlife database and update the project risk assessment if the species is detected after works.

After habitat disturbance: Offsets and corrective action

  • Apply any approved offset, compensatory habitat or restoration requirement for residual impacts in accordance with the relevant approval.
  • Escalate unexpected habitat loss or continuing decline to the project ecologist and regulator rather than treating an offset as a substitute for avoiding and minimising disturbance.
  • Investigate additional protection or restoration where monitoring shows loss of animals, declining habitat condition or failure of movement links.

Rehabilitation actions: Habitat structure and planting

Rehabilitation should recreate the species' ground structure and movement opportunities, not just provide general revegetation. The target is grassy or tussock habitat with suitable basking and refuge features connected to retained habitat.

  • Use locally appropriate native grass and tussock species suited to the original site and its soil and climate, based on the rehabilitation plan and local ecological advice.
  • Reinstate a continuous grassy ground layer rather than dense woody planting where the pre-disturbance habitat was open or treeless.
  • Replace removed rocks and sound fallen timber in stable positions within or beside tussock cover, using material from the site where permitted and free from weeds or contamination.
  • Do not add hollows, nest boxes or wetland features as a substitute for the species' documented ground habitat unless they are required for other fauna or the approved design.

Rehabilitation actions: Connectivity, weeds and predators

  • Reconnect retained habitat patches with native grass and tussock cover wherever the project has created a break.
  • Control weeds that reduce tussock cover or alter the invertebrate prey base, using methods that avoid direct harm to reptiles.
  • Manage introduced predators and other site-specific threats where required by the approved plan and supported by local evidence.
  • Prevent new roads, stock access, storage areas and informal tracks from dividing restored habitat.

Rehabilitation actions: Fire and site management

  • Prepare a fire management approach that protects established tussock cover and retains a mosaic of suitable refuge features, in consultation with the land manager and relevant fire authority.
  • Avoid broad, unplanned burning or slashing of restored tussock habitat until the project ecologist has assessed its likely effect on shelter, basking sites and prey.
  • Maintain rocks, logs, tussocks and connecting cover during mowing, grazing, weed control and other follow-up works.

Rehabilitation actions: Success measures and monitoring

  • Set measurable rehabilitation targets for native tussock cover, retained or reinstated rocks and logs, weed cover, connectivity and absence of machinery barriers.
  • Inspect rehabilitation after establishment and after major disturbance events, recording the area assessed, vegetation condition, habitat features and any Tussock Skink observations.
  • Use repeat diurnal searches in suitable weather and compare results with the pre-disturbance baseline, while recognising that the supplied documents do not provide a species-specific occupancy or detection benchmark.
  • Repair failed plantings, eroded ground, damaged habitat features or broken connections promptly and continue monitoring until the approved success criteria are met.

Sources