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Striated Grasswren (Amytornis striatus)

The Striated Grasswren is a small, ground-dwelling Australian bird of spinifex-dominated sandplains and mallee. It is sensitive to clearing, fragmentation, inappropriate fire, drought, grazing and introduced predators, so intact mature spinifex and connected habitat should be retained on development sites.

Conservation status

Commonwealth, EPBC Act 1999: Critically endangered.

New South Wales, Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016: Critically endangered.

Victoria, Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988: Endangered.

Breeding season

The timing below reflects the best available information for the species and the Murray Mallee conservation unit. Breeding can extend or recommence after rainfall, so local rainfall and recent fire history should be checked before works begin.

The species is resident where habitat persists. Breeding may follow rainfall, so the August to January risk period can extend beyond these months after substantial local rain.

  • Breeding, mating and territorial singing: Territorial singing and breeding activity increase from late winter. Breeding has been recorded from August to January, and one study found the season probably lasted at least five months.
  • Laying and incubation: Females build domed nests in spinifex. Clutches contain 2 to 3 eggs and incubation is about 14 days, with 14 to 19 days recorded in two nests.
  • Nestlings and dependent young: Young remain dependent after fledging, hiding close to the nest during the first week and becoming mostly independent at about four weeks. The breeding season can extend into January.
  • Post-fire recolonisation and local movement: This is not a seasonal migration. Recolonisation of burnt habitat usually takes 5 to 15 years and depends on rainfall. Poor dispersal means that connected unburnt or recovering spinifex patches are important throughout the year.
  • Highest clearing risk: Clearing and construction are most likely to harm the species from August to January, when adults are territorial and nests, nestlings or dependent fledglings may be present. Check dense spinifex for nests and recently fledged young before disturbance.

Identification

The Striated Grasswren is a cryptic, medium-sized grasswren that usually stays close to the ground in spinifex. It is often detected first by its call, movement through grass or brief flight between cover rather than by an exposed perched bird.

The bird is reddish-brown above with white dorsal streaks and buff underparts heavily streaked with white on the breast. It has a rufous-brown eyebrow, a strong black whisker-streak, a white throat, a blackish or grey bill, grey legs and a long blackish-brown tail that is commonly held cocked.

Body length: 14.5 to 19 cm

Body mass: 15 to 23 g

Identification: Sexes and similar species

Females have pale chestnut flanks or a chestnut patch below the wing, although this feature can be difficult to see in the field. Murray Mallee birds have wider white dorsal feather streaks than mukarrthippi grasswrens, A. striatus striatus, and can resemble rufous grasswrens in South Australia. Identification should therefore consider location, habitat and the width of the dorsal streaking, not plumage alone.

Identification: Field signs

The species is strongly terrestrial and usually moves by hopping or scurrying through spinifex, often disappearing into cover and remaining silent and motionless when alarmed. Males commonly sing from low perches about 1 to 2 m above the ground, especially near territory boundaries, and neighbouring males may countersing where territories meet. The nest is a cryptic, substantial grass, bark and spinifex dome with a side entrance, usually placed towards the top or edge of an older spinifex clump. Tracks, scats and other diagnostic ground signs are not described in the supplied sources, so visual, call and nest evidence should be prioritised.

Typical group: A pair, occasionally a group of three

Song perch in one study: About 1 to 2 m above ground

Nest height in one study: 26.2 ± 12.0 cm above ground

Distribution: National range

The Striated Grasswren complex occurs across arid and semi-arid Australia. The Murray Mallee conservation unit is concentrated in the mallee country of New South Wales, South Australia and Victoria, while other subspecies extend into the Great Victoria Desert and other inland areas.

The Murray Mallee striated grasswren occurs in New South Wales, South Australia and Victoria. Its main range is in the Murray Mallee and Murray Darling Depression bioregional area, including the Riverland, Scotia, western New South Wales mallee, and mallee reserves in north-western Victoria and south-eastern South Australia. The sandplain subspecies also occurs across a broader strip of arid Australia, including spinifex sandplains in the Great Victoria Desert, but this taxon should not be treated as interchangeable with the Murray Mallee conservation unit during assessment.

States recorded for the Murray Mallee unit: New South Wales, South Australia and Victoria

Murray Mallee strongholds: Murray-Sunset, Hattah-Kulkyne, Nowingi, Wyperfeld and Big Desert, with smaller populations in Scotia and the Riverland

Estimated extent of occurrence for A. striatus howei: 41,200 km², with an estimated range of 40,000 to 43,000 km²

Distribution: Strongholds and subpopulations

Important known areas include the Riverland Biosphere Reserve and adjacent Scotia in western New South Wales, Billiatt Conservation Park, the western half of Murray-Sunset National Park, Hattah-Kulkyne National Park, Annuello Flora and Fauna Reserve, Wyperfeld National Park and the Big Desert. Fire has removed or greatly reduced birds from several former sites, including Bronzewing Flora and Fauna Reserve, Ngarkat and parts of Billiatt and Cooltong.

Estimated subpopulations: About 5, with an estimated range of 3 to 10

Estimated area of occupancy for A. striatus howei: 2,800 km², with an estimated range of 1,400 to 5,600 km²

Estimated mature individuals: 17,000, with an estimated range of 10,000 to 32,000, but with low reliability

Victorian estimate: About 16,400 birds in Murray-Sunset, Hattah-Kulkyne and Nowingi, based on 2018 to 2019 surveys and modelling

Distribution: Trend and project relevance

The Murray Mallee unit is declining. Reporting rates at regular monitoring sites in Murray-Sunset National Park and the Riverland fell by 86% from 2002 to 2018, with no recovery after the onset of severe drought around 2006. In fragmented mallee outside intact key areas, the species was not recorded in the 2010 to 2019 comparison presented for the Mallee Bird Community, whereas the average reporting rate inside intact key areas was 1.10%.

Habitat

The species uses open mallee and spinifex country on sandy substrates. Habitat value depends on the condition, age and continuity of the spinifex ground layer, not simply on the presence of mallee trees.

Typical habitat is a sandplain or sandy dune system dominated by mature spinifex, usually Triodia species, with a mallee eucalypt overstorey. Territories contain sandy ground and dense spinifex, which provide food, nesting material and cover. The species is generally associated with arid and semi-arid Australia and the Murray Mallee.

Typical vegetation: Open mallee over a sparse shrub layer and a spinifex-dominated ground layer

Key ground plant: Mature Triodia spinifex

Typical territory size: About 3 ha

Habitat: Habitat condition

Recently burnt ground is generally unsuitable, although some birds may forage in regenerating habitat from about 3 years after fire. Recolonisation commonly occurs within 5 to 15 years, depending on rainfall. Spinifex cover increases after fire and later declines, with senescent spinifex becoming unsuitable after several decades. A South Australian fact sheet reports recolonisation after about 6 to 7 years and suitable habitat up to around 40 years after fire, indicating that recovery varies with site and rainfall.

Foraging in regenerating habitat: Some records from about 3 years after fire

Typical recolonisation period: 5 to 15 years after fire, depending on rainfall

Long-term habitat issue: Very old, senescent spinifex can become unsuitable

Habitat: Climate and relief

The supplied sources do not provide a fixed elevation limit. Lower altitude sites are reported to provide greater protection from post-fire and drought impacts than higher sites. Drought, heatwaves and reduced rainfall can reduce ground-storey cover and lower local population density.

Foraging habitat: Diet and feeding method

Striated Grasswrens forage mainly on the ground within and around spinifex clumps. They use the same vegetation that provides shelter, so clearing, vehicle access and grazing can remove both feeding sites and protective cover.

The diet includes seeds, fruits, insects and other invertebrates. Insects were the most commonly identified food delivered to nestlings in one study. Birds hop and scurry through spinifex and other low vegetation, and rarely fly more than a few metres at a time.

Recorded food: Seeds, fruits, insects and other invertebrates

Main feeding location: On or close to the ground

Flight behaviour: Usually short flights of a few metres between cover

Foraging habitat: Foraging structure

Foraging territories contain sandy ground with dense or mature spinifex. Birds use spinifex seeds and invertebrate prey and forage along the edges and within clumps. Retain connected patches of mature spinifex, avoid driving across them and prevent grazing that removes ground cover.

Mean territory size in one study: 3.0 ± 1.1 ha, with a range of 0.6 to 5.2 ha

Adult density in one study: 0.5 birds per ha

Breeding habitat: Breeding biology

Breeding occurs in spinifex territories, usually after winter and spring rainfall. Nest sites are low, concealed and closely associated with older, larger spinifex clumps.

Pairs are usually socially monogamous and strongly territorial. The female builds the nest, while both parents feed the young. Some cooperative breeding has been reported, but most groups in the available study were pairs.

Breeding season: August to January, with breeding also recorded after rainfall

Clutch size: Usually 2 to 3 eggs; mean 2.2 ± 0.4 eggs in one study

Incubation: About 14 days in the conservation assessment; 14 to 19 days in two nests in one study

Nestling stage: About 14 days in one study

Independence: Young become independent at about 4 weeks, although the female may continue feeding for about 2 further weeks

Age at maturity: Not reported in the supplied sources

Lifespan: Not reported for the Striated Grasswren; a Mallee bird community table gives maximum longevity of 10 years

Generation length: About 3 years, with an estimated range of 2.3 to 3.8 years

Breeding habitat: Nest habitat

Nests are cryptic domes made from interwoven grasses, bark and spinifex, with a side entrance. They are placed on sandy dunes, usually towards the top or edge of an older and larger spinifex clump. Avoid clearing, slashing, burning or driving through suitable clumps during the breeding period, and inspect dense spinifex carefully where disturbance cannot be avoided.

Nest form: Substantial dome with a side entrance

Nest material: Grass, bark and spinifex, with soft lining reported in one study

Mean nest height in one study: 26.2 ± 12.0 cm above ground

Typical nest clump: Older and larger spinifex clumps, with mean clump volume of about 0.3 m³ in one study

Sheltering habitat: Cover and refuge

Dense spinifex is the main sheltering structure. The species is highly cryptic, stays close to the ground and can remain motionless in vegetation when approached.

Birds use mature spinifex for shelter, escape, dust bathing and concealment. Recently fledged young remain hidden in spinifex or other shrubs close to the nest, usually within 25 m during the first week after fledging. Retain unburnt clumps, dense ground cover and narrow connections between habitat patches.

Early fledgling refuge: Spinifex or other shrubs, usually within 25 m of the nest during the first week

Main shelter type: Mature and dense Triodia clumps

Flight response: Short, low movements between cover rather than sustained flight

Sheltering habitat: No den or hollow requirement recorded

The supplied sources do not report use of tree hollows, burrows, dens or roosts. The relevant shelter feature for site work is low, connected spinifex cover on sandy ground. Openings created by clearing or fire can increase exposure to predators and reduce movement between patches.

Threats: Clearing and fragmentation

The main project risks are removal or fragmentation of spinifex habitat, fire that removes mature cover, and disturbance or mortality during the breeding period. Indirect effects include grazing, altered predator pressure and reduced recolonisation after fire.

Clearing for agriculture and infrastructure has reduced and fragmented habitat and can impede movement between populations. The species has narrow habitat preferences, a strongly terrestrial lifestyle and apparently poor dispersal ability, making gaps of unsuitable habitat difficult to cross. Avoid clearing mature spinifex, retain connections between patches and keep access tracks out of occupied habitat where practicable.

Threats: Fire and fire frequency

Large or intense fires can kill birds and remove the mature spinifex structure required for feeding, nesting and shelter. A lack of fire can also reduce habitat quality when spinifex becomes senescent. Fire planning should maintain a mosaic of age classes and retain unburnt refuge patches, rather than burning all available habitat at once.

Post-fire recovery: Recolonisation usually occurs within 5 to 15 years, depending on rainfall

Fire-related local loss: Localised extinctions have been reported after fire

Regenerating habitat: Some birds may forage in habitat about 3 years after fire

Threats: Grazing and introduced predators

Sheep, feral goats, rabbits and overabundant kangaroos can remove or degrade spinifex and other ground cover, especially during drought and after fire. Feral cats and foxes may limit population size, with predation risk potentially increasing in open vegetation after fire. Control measures should be considered around occupied patches and newly burnt habitat.

Threats: Climate and other project risks

Drought, heatwaves, reduced rainfall and rising temperatures lower ground-storey cover, reduce abundance and increase fire risk. Roads and construction activity can remove narrow habitat links, create repeated edge disturbance and increase vehicle access for predators. The supplied sources do not identify a species-specific disease or hydrology threat, but changes that reduce spinifex condition or alter soil moisture and rainfall patterns should be assessed.

Survey methodology: 1. Habitat assessment and systematic searches

Survey the Striated Grasswren where works may affect mature spinifex on sandy plains and dunes, usually beneath or among mallee eucalypts. Focus on quiet, low-level ground activity because the species is cryptic, strongly territorial and often remains close to spinifex cover.

Map mature and regenerating Triodia, sandy dunes, mallee overstorey, recently burnt areas and long-unburnt areas before selecting survey sites.

Search on foot through suitable habitat during the breeding period, August to January, and after rainfall when breeding activity may increase.

Use repeated observations along mapped transects or through all suitable habitat patches, recording effort, weather, fire age, spinifex condition and all detections.

Search slowly at ground level and listen for song, contact calls and movement in spinifex, because birds commonly hop or scurry close to the ground and may remain silent and motionless when disturbed.

Typical habitat: Sandplains and sandy dunes dominated by mature Triodia, usually with mallee eucalypts

Territory size: Approximately 3 hectares

Breeding period: August to January, and also following rainfall

Survey methodology: 2. Call playback and visual detection

Use call playback only where it is permitted and justified, and include a quiet listening period before and after playback so territorial responses can be distinguished from incidental movement.

Record the location, time, sex if known, behaviour, direction of movement and whether the bird entered or left the work footprint.

Treat a non-detection cautiously in dense or mature spinifex, because the species is exceptionally well camouflaged and can remain concealed for long periods.

Do not rely on a single visit where suitable habitat is extensive, fragmented, recently burnt or affected by drought.

Known detection context: Males commonly sing at territory boundaries for at least one hour in the morning

Detection limitation: The species has poor apparent dispersal ability and usually moves only short distances through unsuitable cover

Survey methodology: 3. Targeted breeding and nest searches

Inspect mature, older and larger spinifex clumps carefully for cryptic domed nests with side entrances, without trampling or dismantling the clump.

Schedule nest searches in August to January, when breeding has been recorded, and repeat searches after rainfall where works are proposed near occupied habitat.

Keep observers and machinery away from an active nest until an ecologist has assessed the required protection area and work method.

Record nest location, nest status, adult behaviour, likely access routes and the surrounding spinifex condition.

Nest placement: Usually in older and larger spinifex clumps on sandy dunes, about 26.2 cm above ground in the study reported

Clutch size: Usually 2 to 3 eggs

Incubation: About 14 days in the conservation assessment; 14 to 19 days in the detailed breeding study

Fledging and independence: Young remain concealed near the nest after fledging and are mostly independent by about 25 days

Survey methodology: Minimum effort and reporting

  • Use a qualified ecologist to set transect length, number of visits and timing from the amount and condition of suitable Triodia habitat, recent fire history, rainfall and proposed disturbance footprint, because the supplied documents do not provide a statutory project survey effort for this species.
  • Document the area searched, transect or search route, observer hours, start and finish times, weather, wind, rainfall, fire age, habitat condition, playback details and all records, including non-detections.
  • Submit verified records to the relevant state wildlife database and provide records required by the project approval, with accurate coordinates and the taxon name used for the local population or subspecies.
  • Report records under the current accepted taxonomy and note any uncertainty between Amytornis striatus howei and other members of the Amytornis striatus complex.

Before habitat disturbance: Avoid and minimise habitat loss

Assume mature Triodia on sandy ground is potential Striated Grasswren habitat until survey evidence shows otherwise. Avoid removing or isolating occupied habitat, particularly in mallee reserves and other areas that retain connected, mature spinifex.

Fire recovery: Recolonisation after fire usually occurs within 5 to 15 years, depending on rainfall; some birds forage in regenerating habitat from about 3 years after fire

Habitat persistence after fire: Spinifex habitat can become unsuitable when it is senescent after several decades

  • Redesign the footprint to retain mature spinifex clumps, sandy dunes, mallee overstorey and links between suitable habitat patches.
  • Avoid clearing occupied habitat, active nests and areas that support adjoining territories wherever practicable.
  • Retain unburnt and structurally suitable Triodia as well as habitat in different post-fire stages, because fire can cause local extinctions, while long-unburnt senescent spinifex can also become unsuitable.
  • Keep retained habitat connected across the work area, because fragmentation and the species' limited dispersal ability can isolate populations.

Before habitat disturbance: Approvals and work planning

  • Check the current EPBC Act listing and refer the action if it may have a significant impact on the nationally listed taxon or its habitat.
  • Confirm state threatened fauna requirements, clearing approvals, survey obligations, authorisations for fauna handling and any conditions applying to the work site.
  • Prepare a fauna management plan that identifies mapped habitat, no-go areas, nest protection, fauna handling, stop-work triggers, incident reporting and post-work monitoring.
  • Stage clearing so retained habitat remains connected and occupied birds are not forced into recently burnt, heavily grazed or otherwise unsuitable cover.
  • Prefer works outside the breeding period, August to January, where feasible, and avoid starting works after rainfall when breeding activity may increase.

Before habitat disturbance: Pre-clearance preparation

  • Complete a pre-clearance survey immediately before works in all mature Triodia and sandy dune habitat within and beside the disturbance area.
  • Mark retained spinifex, active nests, access routes, exclusion zones and habitat links on plans and on the ground before machinery arrives.
  • Install clearly visible exclusion fencing where it will prevent machinery and people entering retained Triodia, without blocking known bird movement routes.
  • Brief operators and spotter catchers on the species' appearance, ground-based behaviour, likely nest locations, reporting requirements and stop-work procedure.
  • Control avoidable risks from dogs, cats, foxes, rabbits, goats and grazing stock around retained habitat before disturbance begins.

During habitat disturbance: Daily controls and machinery interface

Use a controlled, low-speed clearing sequence with a fauna spotter catcher present wherever suitable habitat is being disturbed. The spotter catcher must be able to stop machinery before spinifex, nests or concealed animals are damaged.

  • Inspect exclusion fencing, nest markers, retained Triodia and access routes at the start of each shift and after any movement of machinery.
  • Clear in small stages from already disturbed ground towards retained habitat, giving animals an opportunity to move into suitable cover rather than trapping them against the work edge.
  • Keep the fauna spotter catcher within clear sight of the active clearing face and maintain direct communication with each machine operator.
  • Use low ground speed, pause before pushing dense spinifex and allow the spotter catcher to inspect concealed areas before each bucket, blade or vehicle movement.
  • Do not park machinery, store materials or place spoil on retained sandy dunes, mature spinifex or marked movement links.

During habitat disturbance: Finding, handling and relocation

Typical social unit: Pairs, with occasional groups of three; mean group size in one study was 2.1 adults

Adult movement: Individuals were rarely observed flying more than a few metres and usually remained close to the ground

  • Stop the relevant machine immediately if a Striated Grasswren, nest, eggs, dependent young or injured animal is detected in the work area.
  • Have only appropriately authorised and experienced fauna personnel handle the bird, and use the least intrusive method that protects the animal from immediate harm.
  • Do not chase birds through dense spinifex or repeatedly flush them, because they are strongly territorial, ground-oriented and vulnerable to disturbance of nests and cover.
  • Relocate an animal only when authorised by the fauna management plan or relevant approval, and place it in nearby retained habitat with suitable mature Triodia and shelter.
  • Take an injured bird promptly to an appropriately qualified veterinarian or authorised wildlife carer, following the applicable state wildlife requirements.
  • Do not move an active nest, eggs or dependent young unless the relevant wildlife authority and the approved fauna procedure authorise that action.

During habitat disturbance: Stop-work triggers and records

  • Stop work in the affected area for any confirmed bird, active nest, dependent young, injured animal, unexpected concentration of birds or damage to a marked exclusion zone.
  • Escalate to the project ecologist and environmental officer if a bird does not leave the clearing face, if relocation is proposed, or if a nest is exposed or damaged.
  • Record the date, time, coordinates, habitat, fire age if known, activity, machinery involved, animal response, handler, action taken and outcome for every detection and incident.
  • Report mortality, injury, nest damage, unauthorised clearing and breaches of approval conditions to the person and agency identified in the fauna management plan.
  • Review the clearing method before work resumes and increase the exclusion area or change the staging where the controls have not protected the species.

After habitat disturbance: Completion checks

Confirm that retained habitat and any relocation areas remain usable after clearing. Post-work checks should focus on mature Triodia, nest disturbance, access routes and new pressures from predators, grazing and fire.

  • Inspect the full disturbance boundary and retained habitat for injured or dead birds, exposed nests, damaged spinifex, vehicle intrusion and gaps in exclusion fencing.
  • Remove spoil, temporary materials and machinery from retained sandy dunes and Triodia habitat.
  • Confirm that retained habitat links remain open and that relocation sites contain shelter and mature spinifex rather than only recently burnt or degraded ground.
  • Complete a follow-up search where clearing occurred beside occupied habitat, an active nest, a relocation site or a known local population.

After habitat disturbance: Monitoring and reporting

Known decline indicator: Reporting rates declined by 86% at regular monitoring sites in Murray-Sunset National Park and Riverland from 2002 to 2018, with no recovery reported after severe drought began around 2006

Fenced predator-free comparison: Reporting rates at Scotia were steady but variable inside an 80 km2 feral predator-free fence, while only two birds were recorded outside the fence during surveys since 2013

  • Monitor relocated birds and retained habitat at a frequency and duration set by the approval and fauna management plan, using the same search route and recording method where possible.
  • Repeat monitoring after fire, drought, major heat events or heavy grazing where these events may reduce Triodia cover or increase predation risk.
  • Compare reporting rates, occupancy or confirmed territories with the pre-work baseline, while recording survey effort so changes are interpretable.
  • Provide the project completion report, incident records, monitoring results and verified species records to the approval authority and relevant state wildlife database.

After habitat disturbance: Compliance, offsets and adaptive action

  • Check that all rehabilitation, monitoring, offset and reporting commitments in the EPBC Act decision, state approval and fauna management plan have been completed.
  • Apply an approved offset or conservation measure where residual impacts remain and the approval requires it.
  • Escalate continuing habitat decline, failed relocation, repeated mortality or loss of connectivity to the approval holder and relevant wildlife authority.
  • Use monitoring results to revise fire, grazing, predator and access controls for later project stages.

Rehabilitation actions: Rebuild species habitat

Rehabilitation should rebuild mature spinifex habitat on sandy ground and reconnect retained patches. It will not replace an established territory quickly, so avoidable clearing and fragmentation remain the first controls.

Habitat structure: Open mallee over a sparse shrub layer and ground cover dominated by spinifex

Territory scale: Approximately 3 hectares

  • Retain and protect surviving mature Triodia and mallee plants wherever possible rather than relying only on revegetation.
  • Reinstate sandy ground profiles and avoid compacting dunes or covering them with spoil, because territories are associated with sandy dunes dominated by spinifex.
  • Use locally appropriate Triodia and mallee species consistent with the pre-clearing community and local restoration plan, with seed collection and provenance managed under applicable state requirements.
  • Restore connected strips between retained habitat patches and protect them from vehicles, stock and other uses while spinifex re-establishes.
  • Do not plant dense vegetation that removes the open mallee structure and sandy ground conditions used by the species.

Rehabilitation actions: Reinstate shelter and manage threats

Main pressures: Large or frequent fires, drought, heatwaves, unsuitable long-unburnt spinifex, grazing and browsing, feral cats, foxes, clearing and fragmentation

Post-fire recolonisation: Usually 5 to 15 years, depending on rainfall

  • Retain natural spinifex clumps and ground shelter, including suitable nest sites, rather than installing artificial structures that are not supported by the supplied species evidence.
  • Manage rabbits, goats, sheep and overabundant macropods where grazing or browsing is reducing Triodia regeneration or ground cover.
  • Control feral cats and foxes where monitoring shows predation pressure, with particular attention to open post-fire or recently cleared areas.
  • Manage weeds and unauthorised access so planted and regenerating Triodia is not displaced, trampled or grazed before it is established.
  • Apply a site-specific fire regime that avoids both extensive high-intensity fire and long periods that allow spinifex to become senescent and unsuitable.

Rehabilitation actions: Success measures and monitoring

  • Set success measures for survival and cover of planted Triodia, retention of sandy ground and mallee structure, connectivity between habitat patches and exclusion of grazing and vehicles.
  • Inspect rehabilitation after rainfall and during the August to January breeding period for grasswren presence, territorial song, tracks, movement and nests.
  • Continue monitoring until Triodia provides suitable shelter and foraging structure, not merely until plants have survived their first season.
  • Record fire, drought, grazing, predator activity and habitat condition alongside bird detections so management can respond to the combined pressures identified for this species.
  • Treat rehabilitation as unsuccessful where mature spinifex is absent, patches remain isolated, grazing prevents regeneration or fire has removed the available cover, and revise the restoration and threat controls.

Sources