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Spotted Harrier (Circus assimilis)

The Spotted Harrier is a medium-sized Australian bird of prey that hunts over native grassland, open woodland, mallee, inland riparian woodland, shrub steppe and agricultural land. It is listed as Vulnerable in New South Wales and has been recorded near Maddingley, Victoria, where clearing of open habitat, loss of prey and disturbance to nesting trees may affect it.

Conservation status

New South Wales, Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016: Vulnerable.

Breeding season

The species can occur throughout the year, but breeding activity is concentrated in spring and may also occur in autumn. The timing of local movements varies, and the supplied documents do not establish a fixed migration pattern.

Monthly timing is a field-planning interpretation of the documented spring breeding period, occasional autumn breeding and several-month nestling period. Confirm local timing through pre-clearing surveys and repeated observations.

  • Breeding: Egg laying is mainly in spring, with breeding sometimes recorded in autumn. Spring is represented by September to November, with December included because large fledged young were recorded at a nest in early December.
  • Young: Young remain in the nest for several months. Three large, fully fledged juveniles were recorded at a nest in early December and remained near the nest after it was empty.
  • Autumn breeding: Autumn breeding is reported as occasional rather than typical, so March to May is marked as possible rather than peak activity.
  • Movement and dispersal: Individuals disperse widely in NSW. Records from the Millewa show that local occurrence can vary between seasons, but no fixed migration schedule is established in the supplied documents.
  • Highest clearing risk: September to February carries the highest practical risk because it includes the main spring breeding period, nesting and the period when dependent or recently fledged young may remain near the nest. Autumn disturbance may also affect occasional breeding.

Identification

The Spotted Harrier is a slender, long-legged harrier with a distinctive owl-like facial ruff. It is usually identified in flight over open country, where its long wings, banded tail and contrasting chestnut and grey plumage are visible.

Adults are blue-grey above with dark barring, black wingtips, a chestnut face and innerwing patch, and chestnut underparts. The long tail is boldly banded and wedge-shaped at the tip. The legs are long, bare and yellow.

Juveniles are mottled and streaked ginger and brown, with prominent ginger shoulders, a fawn rump and a banded tail.

Body length: 50 to 60 cm.

Wingspan: 121 to 147 cm.

Reported weight: 558.6 g.

Identification: Similar species

The Swamp Harrier is generally browner, has a prominent white rump, a more rounded and less strongly banded tail, and barred rather than solid black wingtips.

The Square-tailed Kite has a paler face, shorter legs and longer, boldly banded wingtips.

Identification: Field signs

The species builds a stick nest in a tree. A nest may therefore be an important field sign during clearing surveys, particularly in scattered woodland, mallee remnants, roadside tree belts and inland riparian woodland.

Adults and recently fledged young may remain near a nest after the young leave it. A 1983 to 1985 study in north-western Victoria recorded an adult flying from a nest containing three large, fully fledged juveniles in early December.

  • Search mature and suitably placed trees for stick nests before vegetation removal.
  • Record adults, juveniles, repeated flight paths and hunting activity over open ground.
  • Do not rely on a lack of sightings to exclude use of a site, because the species can be widely dispersed and may be missed during casual observations.

Distribution: Range and strongholds

The Spotted Harrier occurs across the Australian mainland, mainly in open inland country, and is rare in Tasmania. It is widely dispersed in New South Wales, where the population is treated as a single population.

The species occurs throughout the Australian mainland except in densely forested or wooded habitats of the coast, escarpment and ranges. It is rarely recorded in Tasmania.

Its strongest broad distribution is in arid and semi-arid zones. In New South Wales, important areas include the western slopes and plains, where breeding densities were formerly higher before extensive clearing and grazing. In Victoria, it has been recorded in the Millewa, including cleared agricultural country with mallee, Casuarina and roadside vegetation.

A Victorian Biodiversity Atlas record listed the species near Melton Reservoir, and a record dated 8 March 2019 was reported within 5 km of the Maddingley Brown Coal site.

States and territories: Recorded across mainland Australia, including New South Wales and Victoria; rarely recorded in Tasmania.

Bioregional pattern: Most associated with arid and semi-arid regions, inland western slopes and plains, open agricultural country and inland riparian areas.

Population structure in NSW: Individuals disperse widely and are treated as one population.

Distribution: Population trend

Atlas reporting rates declined between the first national bird atlas, covering 1977 to 1981, and the second atlas, covering 1998 to 2002. The decline was recorded across much of New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia, although differences in survey methods may have affected detectability.

No reliable total population size is provided in the supplied documents.

Change in reporting rate: 55% decline in NSW and 47% decline nationally over approximately 20 years between the two atlas periods.

Indicative decline over three generations: At least 30% was considered possible even after allowing for uncertainty in the atlas comparison.

Generation length: Estimated at 10 years.

Habitat: Habitat types

Spotted Harriers need open country for hunting and trees or other suitable woodland remnants for nesting. They can use modified agricultural areas where open ground, prey and nesting trees remain available.

The species occurs in grassy open woodland, acacia and mallee remnants, inland riparian woodland, grassland, shrub steppe including chenopod shrublands, agricultural land and the edges of inland wetlands.

Native grassland is considered the most commonly used habitat type, but the species also hunts over open agricultural areas.

Habitat: Structure and site condition

Important habitat combines open ground for low hunting flights with scattered trees or woodland remnants for nesting. Retained mallee belts, roadside vegetation, riparian trees and isolated woodland patches can therefore remain useful even in highly cleared country.

Habitat degradation that reduces ground cover or prey availability can reduce the value of otherwise suitable open country. Grazing pressure is relevant because many native prey species use ground cover and are sensitive to its loss.

  • Retain open native grassland, shrub steppe and mallee remnants where possible.
  • Retain scattered mature trees and tree belts within or beside open hunting areas.
  • Inspect inland wetland edges and riparian woodland where they adjoin open grassland or agricultural land.
  • Map connected areas of open habitat and nesting trees before clearing rather than assessing trees and grassland separately.

Habitat: Elevation and climate

The supplied sources describe the species as associated mainly with open country in tropical and temperate regions, with a stronghold in arid and semi-arid zones. A maximum elevation of 1,500 m is reported, but no lower elevation limit is given.

Reported elevation: Up to 1,500 m.

Climate and country: Tropical and temperate open country, especially arid and semi-arid regions.

Foraging habitat: Diet

The Spotted Harrier is a carnivorous, ground-focused hunter that searches open habitat from the air. It can forage over native grassland, agricultural land and wetland edges.

Recorded prey includes terrestrial mammals such as bandicoots, bettongs and rodents, birds and reptiles. Large insects are taken occasionally and carrion rarely.

The species was formerly heavily dependent on rabbits in some areas. Following major rabbit declines, it has become more dependent on native prey, including grassland birds.

Main prey: Terrestrial mammals, birds and reptiles.

Occasional food: Large insects and, rarely, carrion.

Prey sensitivity: Quail, button-quail, pipits, larks and songlarks depend on ground cover and can be affected by grazing and habitat degradation.

Foraging habitat: Foraging behaviour

The species forages over open habitats, including the edges of inland wetlands. In the Millewa, Spotted Harriers took advantage of quail disturbed by harvesting or fallowing and were observed catching them on at least two occasions.

Foraging habitat may extend across cleared agricultural land, native grassland and open woodland remnants. The supplied documents do not provide a standard home-range size or foraging radius.

  • Assess open ground beyond the immediate clearing footprint because hunting areas may include adjoining paddocks, grassland and wetland margins.
  • Retain ground cover and native vegetation that support small mammals, reptiles and grassland birds.
  • Avoid reducing prey habitat through unnecessary grazing, broadscale ground disturbance or removal of native grassland.

Breeding habitat: Breeding biology

Spotted Harriers breed in open country where prey is available and suitable trees remain for nesting. Nesting has been recorded in roadside mallee and other woodland remnants within largely cleared agricultural areas.

The species builds a stick nest in a tree and lays eggs mainly in spring, although autumn breeding is also recorded. Young remain in the nest for several months.

A Millewa record found three large, fully fledged juveniles at a nest in early December. Both adults and the young remained in the area after the nest was empty five days later.

Breeding season: Mainly spring, with breeding sometimes occurring in autumn.

Clutch size: Approximately 2.5 to 3.1 eggs.

Nest type: Stick nest in a tree.

Incubation: Not stated in the supplied documents.

Age at maturity: Approximately 2.9 years.

Lifespan: Average age 6.5 years and maximum reported age 17.188 years in the supplied source.

Generation length: Estimated at 10 years.

Breeding habitat: Breeding habitat features

Breeding habitat includes open grassland, agricultural land, mallee remnants, acacia woodland and inland riparian woodland with trees suitable for a stick nest. The nest may be located in a roadside belt or other retained woodland within a largely cleared area.

The species is likely to be most exposed to clearing when a nest tree, the surrounding open hunting area or the prey base is removed during the breeding period.

  • Search retained trees and woodland belts for stick nests before clearing.
  • Inspect trees within and beside open grassland, agricultural land, mallee remnants and riparian areas.
  • Maintain a quiet area around any active nest and monitor adults and young before work recommences.
  • Retain nearby open hunting habitat and ground cover, not only the nest tree.

Sheltering habitat: Known shelter and nesting features

The supplied documents provide limited information on non-breeding roosts and shelter sites. The clearest sheltering feature is the tree used for nesting, together with retained woodland and ground cover that support prey.

Spotted Harriers build stick nests in trees. In the Millewa, a nest was located in a roadside belt of mallee, showing that narrow woodland remnants can provide nesting structure within cleared country.

Adults and recently fledged young may remain in the vicinity of the nest after fledging. The documents do not give a nest height, nest diameter, preferred tree species or standard roost distance.

  • Treat tree belts, mallee remnants and riparian woodland as potential nesting and post-fledging areas.
  • Inspect trees for stick nests before trimming, felling or machinery access.
  • Include nearby perches and open ground in the work inspection because fledged young may remain close to the nest.

Sheltering habitat: Ground cover and refuge value

Ground cover is important indirectly because many native prey species used by Spotted Harriers depend on it. Grazing and other disturbance that remove ground cover can reduce prey availability and the value of open habitat.

No specific burrow, den, hollow, roost or refuge dimensions are provided for this species.

  • Retain native grass and low shrub cover around woodland remnants and wetland edges.
  • Avoid unnecessary removal of ground cover during access, staging and construction.
  • Check open areas for repeated hunting activity before disturbing them.

Threats: Habitat loss and degradation

The main documented threats are loss and degradation of foraging and breeding habitat, reduced prey availability, grazing pressure and secondary poisoning. Clearing projects can affect the species by removing open hunting areas, prey habitat, nesting trees or quiet space around active nests.

Clearing and degradation of foraging and breeding habitat are the main documented threats. Important NSW bioregions on the western slopes and plains were reported as 40 to 84% cleared and 85 to 91% grazed.

Removal of native grassland, mallee remnants, scattered trees, riparian woodland or wetland edges can reduce habitat quality. Fragmentation may also separate nesting trees from the open habitat used for hunting.

  • Avoid clearing native grassland and open woodland where practicable.
  • Retain nesting trees, mallee belts, riparian trees and nearby open hunting habitat.
  • Assess the wider area used for prey and hunting, not just the vegetation directly beneath construction works.
  • Control grazing and other activities that remove the ground cover supporting prey.

Threats: Prey decline

The species may be affected when rabbits decline, but it is also affected by the historical loss of native small mammals and declines in grassland birds. Reported declines in NSW included 55% for Richard's Pipit, 49% for Singing Bushlark and 45% for Brown Songlark between the two national atlas periods.

  • Protect native grassland and ground cover used by quail, button-quail, pipits, larks and songlarks.
  • Avoid broadscale disturbance that reduces small mammal, reptile and grassland bird habitat.

Threats: Poisoning and disturbance

Secondary poisoning from rodenticides and pindone used for rabbit control is identified as a possible threat. Disturbance or clearing around an active nest may affect eggs, nestlings or recently fledged young.

The supplied documents do not identify a species-specific disease threat or quantify impacts from roads, fire or hydrology change.

  • Record and manage rodenticide and rabbit-control programs near known or potential harrier habitat.
  • Complete pre-clearing nest searches during the breeding period.
  • Establish a site-specific no-work area and monitoring approach if an active nest is found.
  • Treat road construction, access tracks and wetland drainage as potential habitat impacts where they remove open habitat, nesting trees or prey habitat.

Threats: Conservation status

The Spotted Harrier is listed as Vulnerable in New South Wales. It is not listed under the EPBC Act in the supplied project information. A Victorian record near Maddingley was classified as Near threatened in the supplied biodiversity listing.

NSW status: Vulnerable.

EPBC Act status: Not listed in the supplied project information.

Victorian status in supplied listing: Near threatened.

Survey methodology: 1. Habitat assessment and desktop records

Survey the Spotted Harrier in open country, native grassland, grassy open woodland, acacia or mallee remnants, inland riparian woodland, shrub steppe and open wetland edges. It is a wide-ranging raptor that may be detected while foraging, but breeding evidence requires a search for stick nests and observations of adults carrying nesting material or feeding young.

Map open grassland, grassy woodland, mallee, acacia remnants, chenopod shrubland, inland riparian woodland, agricultural paddocks and the edges of wetlands before field survey.

Check state wildlife databases and local records because the species can range widely and may be recorded away from breeding areas.

Treat a record as evidence of use of the broader area, not proof that a nest or breeding territory occurs within the project footprint. The species is reported throughout mainland Australia and disperses widely in New South Wales.

Typical habitat: Grassy open woodland, acacia and mallee remnants, inland riparian woodland, grassland, shrub steppe, agricultural land and open wetland edges

Foraging behaviour: Usually hunts over open habitat for terrestrial mammals, birds, reptiles and occasionally large insects

Project record in supplied material: Spotted Harrier recorded within 5 km of the Maddingley Brown Coal site, with a latest observation date of 8 March 2019

Survey methodology: 2. Daylight area searches and vantage-point watches

Search suitable open habitat during daylight, concentrating on early morning and other periods when raptors are likely to be active and visible.

Use elevated or unobstructed vantage points where available, and scan slowly over grassland, paddocks, wetland margins, riparian openings and woodland edges for low quartering flight, perching birds and prey-capture behaviour.

Record the search area, start and finish times, weather, visibility, wind, observers, habitat searched and all raptor detections.

Repeat searches across suitable habitat and across more than one season where the project may remove open foraging habitat, because the species can occur year round and observations in the Millewa study occurred in all seasons.

Known detectability: The species may be detected visually while flying or foraging over open habitat

Useful search areas: Native grassland, open woodland, agricultural land, inland wetland edges and open riparian habitat

Documented seasonal occurrence: Recorded in summer, autumn, winter and spring in a 16 month Victorian field study

Survey methodology: 3. Nest and breeding searches

Search suitable trees and tree belts for stick nests before clearing, particularly trees within or beside open grassland, paddocks, mallee, acacia woodland and riparian openings.

Inspect large trees and roadside or riparian tree belts from safe ground-based vantage points, using binoculars or a telescope where available.

Look for adults flying from a tree, carrying sticks, delivering prey, displaying around a tree, or repeatedly returning to one location.

If a nest is located, do not approach closely or disturb the tree until the project ecologist has assessed whether it is active and whether an exclusion area or seasonal work restriction is required.

Use the breeding information in the NSW determination to plan searches in spring and, recognising that autumn laying can occur, include autumn checks where the project schedule permits.

Nest type: Stick nest in a tree

Reported breeding period: Egg laying occurs in spring and sometimes autumn

Recorded Victorian breeding observation: An adult was observed flying from a nest containing three large, fully fledged juveniles in early December 1984

Survey methodology: 4. Behavioural observation and survey limitations

Record flight direction, height, habitat used, perch locations, hunting areas, prey items, calls, interactions between birds and any repeated use of a tree or wetland margin.

Do not rely on a single negative survey to conclude that the species is absent, particularly where open habitat, prey habitat or suitable nesting trees remain.

Interpret records in relation to habitat condition and prey availability because the species may forage over agricultural land and may occur as a wide-ranging or dispersing individual.

The supplied survey guideline extract does not provide a Spotted Harrier specific effort table, so set the final survey effort through the project risk assessment, habitat extent, season, visibility and the requirements of the relevant state authority.

Survey methodology: Minimum effort and reporting

State status in supplied project information: Vulnerable in New South Wales and near threatened in the Victorian advisory listing reproduced in

Commonwealth status in supplied project information: Not listed under the EPBC Act

  • Complete a desktop records search and habitat assessment before field work.
  • Undertake daylight searches of all suitable habitat within the disturbance footprint and any connected habitat that could be affected by the works.
  • Include a breeding-season nest search, with spring as the primary period and an autumn check where the program may overlap the species' occasional autumn laying period.
  • Record all sightings, nests, flight paths, habitat use, survey conditions, search effort and photographs or other supporting evidence.
  • Submit verified records to the relevant state wildlife database and provide the record details to the project ecologist and approval authority where required.
  • Report the species using the scientific name Circus assimilis and retain the observation date, location accuracy, observer details and evidence.

Before habitat disturbance: Avoid and minimise

Plan the works around the species' use of open foraging habitat and scattered nesting trees. The main project risks are clearing or degrading foraging and breeding habitat, reducing prey habitat, disturbing an active nest and exposing birds to poisoning or other changes in prey availability.

  • Retain native grassland, open woodland, acacia and mallee remnants, inland riparian woodland, chenopod shrubland and open wetland edges wherever practicable.
  • Retain mature trees and tree belts that could support a stick nest, including isolated trees in otherwise open ground.
  • Retain ground cover and native vegetation that supports prey such as quail, button-quail, pipits, larks and songlarks.
  • Maintain connected open foraging areas between retained woodland, riparian habitat and wetland margins rather than creating isolated vegetation patches.
  • Avoid clearing or intensive activity near a confirmed active nest and establish a project ecologist approved exclusion area based on the nest location, activity, line of sight, machinery type and approval conditions.
  • Prevent avoidable degradation from grazing, soil disturbance, weed invasion, uncontrolled access, dust and changes to drainage in retained habitat.

Before habitat disturbance: Approvals and project controls

  • Confirm the current state listing and obtain any required state threatened species approvals, licences or permit exemptions before clearing.
  • Although the supplied project information states that the species is not listed under the EPBC Act, check the current Commonwealth species list and referral obligations if the action could affect another listed matter or if the status has changed.
  • Include the Spotted Harrier in the project's fauna management plan where records, suitable habitat or a potential nest occur.
  • Set out survey triggers, nest exclusion procedures, stop-work authority, fauna handling limits, incident reporting and contact details for the project ecologist.
  • Use the approved ecological assessment and conditions of approval to set any nest, habitat or riparian buffers. Do not adopt an unapproved generic distance.

Before habitat disturbance: Timing and staging

  • Schedule vegetation removal outside the period when an active nest is identified or suspected, subject to the approval and advice of the project ecologist.
  • Treat spring as a higher-risk breeding period and also check for breeding activity in autumn because autumn laying is recorded for the species.
  • Stage clearing so that retained grassland, woodland, riparian openings and wetland edges remain available while works progress.
  • Start with low-impact access and pre-clearance inspection before bringing in heavy machinery.
  • Stop and reassess if repeated adult activity, nest defence, prey delivery or dependent young are observed.

Before habitat disturbance: Pre-clearance preparation

  • Complete a pre-clearance survey immediately before works, including a search for active stick nests and a check of open habitat, tree belts, wetland margins and riparian areas.
  • Mark retained trees, potential nest trees, habitat to be protected, access routes and exclusion areas on plans and in the field.
  • Install exclusion fencing where it can protect retained open habitat, tree belts, riparian habitat or wetland margins without blocking the bird's access to the area.
  • Brief machinery operators and fauna spotter catchers on the species' appearance, likely habitat, stop-work triggers and reporting procedure.
  • Confirm a licensed wildlife carer or veterinarian contact before works begin.

During habitat disturbance: Daily work controls

The fauna spotter catcher should control the immediate work area, but the spotter catcher is not a substitute for a pre-clearance survey or an ecologist's nest assessment. Work must stop when an active nest, dependent young or an injured bird is found.

  • Inspect the active work area at the start of each shift and after changes in the work footprint.
  • Check that exclusion fencing, nest buffers, tree protection and riparian controls remain intact.
  • Keep machinery within approved boundaries and prevent unnecessary movement through retained grassland, open woodland, wetland margins and tree belts.
  • Limit dust, runoff, waste, noise and vehicle movement that could degrade retained habitat or reduce prey availability.
  • Maintain a clear communication method between the spotter catcher, machinery operators, site supervisor and project ecologist.
  • Record the date, work area, weather, personnel, machinery, habitat disturbed, fauna observations and any control failure.

During habitat disturbance: Spotter catcher and machinery interface

  • The spotter catcher must have authority to call an immediate stop when a Spotted Harrier, nest or dependent young may be affected.
  • Keep machinery stationary until the spotter catcher has checked the immediate area and given clearance to proceed.
  • Use a staged approach around retained trees, open habitat edges, riparian vegetation and wetland margins so the spotter catcher can inspect the next area safely.
  • Do not direct machinery toward a bird to flush it from the work area.
  • Escalate any repeated flight activity, alarm behaviour, nest attendance or prey delivery to the project ecologist before work continues.

During habitat disturbance: If the animal is found

  • Stop work if the bird is within the disturbance area, is injured, is unable to fly normally, or is repeatedly using a tree or habitat feature that may be affected.
  • Keep people, vehicles and machinery back and allow the bird a clear flight path.
  • Do not catch or handle an adult raptor unless the person is authorised, trained and the action is permitted by the relevant wildlife authority and project plan.
  • Contact the project ecologist for identification, risk assessment and any required state authority advice.
  • If the bird is injured, place its welfare ahead of work progress and arrange transfer to a veterinarian or authorised wildlife carer through the approved project contacts.
  • Only relocate a bird when the project ecologist and relevant authority determine that relocation is lawful and necessary, and use nearby retained habitat that provides suitable open foraging and roosting conditions.
  • Do not relocate an active nest, eggs or dependent young without specific expert direction and approval.

During habitat disturbance: Habitat features and stop-work triggers

  • Treat a stick nest, nest tree, tree belt, open grassland patch, wetland edge, riparian opening or prey-rich ground cover as a potential resource until assessed.
  • Stop work and notify the project ecologist if an active nest, adult carrying nesting material, prey delivery, nest defence, dependent young, injured bird or repeated low hunting flights are observed.
  • Stop work if clearing, filling, drainage changes, dust, runoff or waste enters retained riparian or wetland habitat.
  • Do not remove logs, rocks, hollows or burrows as a Spotted Harrier specific measure unless they are covered by the broader fauna management plan, because the supplied documents identify prey habitat and nesting trees as the main direct habitat features for this species.
  • Document every stop-work event, decision, clearance and release or referral.

After habitat disturbance: Post-clearance checks

Post-clearance work should confirm that retained habitat and nest controls remain effective and that the project has not removed an active breeding site or severed access to open foraging habitat.

  • Inspect the cleared boundary and retained habitat for injured birds, stranded fauna, damaged nest trees, sediment movement, waste, dust deposition and unauthorised encroachment.
  • Recheck retained trees and tree belts for nest activity where clearing occurred nearby, particularly during spring and where autumn breeding activity was possible.
  • Confirm that drainage, access tracks and stockpiles have not reduced the quality of retained grassland, open woodland, riparian openings or wetland margins.
  • Repair exclusion fencing, erosion controls and tree protection immediately if they have failed.

After habitat disturbance: Monitoring and reporting

  • Monitor retained habitat and any known nest area at the frequency required by the approval, fauna management plan and project ecologist.
  • Record post-clearance sightings, flight paths, hunting behaviour, nest status, disturbance events and any injured or dead birds.
  • Compare post-work observations with the pre-clearance habitat map and baseline records.
  • Report incidents, nest disturbance, unauthorised clearing and mortality through the project's environmental incident system and to the relevant authority where required.
  • Submit verified new records to the relevant state wildlife database.

After habitat disturbance: Corrective actions and offsets

  • Apply corrective actions where works have damaged retained habitat, altered drainage, removed prey cover or breached an exclusion area.
  • Review whether additional habitat protection, weed control, predator management or seasonal restrictions are needed before the next work stage.
  • Assess offsets only where they are required by an approval or state policy, and ensure any offset retains or restores the open foraging and nesting resources used by the species.
  • Do not treat an offset as a substitute for avoiding an active nest or retaining suitable habitat within the project area.

Rehabilitation actions: Restore habitat structure

Rehabilitation should restore open foraging habitat and retain suitable nesting trees rather than creating dense vegetation that removes hunting space. The species depends on prey-rich ground cover and uses trees for nesting in otherwise open country.

  • Restore native grassland, grassy open woodland, acacia or mallee remnants, inland riparian woodland and open wetland margins that match the pre-disturbance habitat.
  • Use locally appropriate native grasses, chenopod shrubs, acacias and eucalypts identified in the approved ecological restoration plan, rather than planting a dense closed canopy across open hunting areas.
  • Retain and protect mature trees and tree belts that could support stick nests.
  • Maintain a mixture of open ground and native ground cover because the species hunts over open habitat and its prey includes ground-dwelling birds, reptiles and small mammals.
  • Reinstate natural drainage and prevent sediment, contaminated material, stormwater and waste from entering riparian or wetland habitat.

Rehabilitation actions: Manage prey habitat and threats

  • Control weeds and avoid rehabilitation treatments that remove all ground cover used by prey species.
  • Use grazing and mowing controls that maintain suitable native ground cover and avoid intensive disturbance during identified breeding activity.
  • Prevent secondary poisoning from rodenticides and rabbit control products by following approved non-toxic or tightly controlled pest management procedures.
  • Control feral predators and pest animals where required by the approved management plan, while protecting the native prey base.
  • Manage fire according to the approved ecological fire plan and avoid broadscale burning that removes remaining cover or affects an active nest.

Rehabilitation actions: Nest and habitat feature protection

  • Protect retained nest trees and allow replacement trees to mature within open woodland and riparian settings.
  • Install nest boxes only where a qualified ecologist identifies a specific need and the design, placement and maintenance plan are approved; the supplied documents do not establish a Spotted Harrier nest-box requirement.
  • Do not place dense plantings, tall stockpiles or infrastructure across known flight paths between nesting trees and open foraging areas.
  • Retain natural logs, rocks and other ground features where they support the broader prey community, but do not claim them as Spotted Harrier nesting features.

Rehabilitation actions: Success measures and monitoring

  • Monitor vegetation establishment, native ground cover, weed cover, erosion, drainage and the condition of retained trees against the approved rehabilitation targets.
  • Use repeat daylight searches to record whether Spotted Harriers continue to forage over the rehabilitated area or use retained trees.
  • Record any breeding behaviour, nest attendance, prey delivery and dependent young without approaching or disturbing the nest.
  • Continue monitoring for the period required by the approval, rehabilitation plan or offset agreement, and adapt management if open foraging habitat is being lost or prey cover is declining.

Sources