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Shoemaker Frog (Neobatrachus sutor)

The Shoemaker Frog is a small, burrowing frog of semi-arid Western Australia. It spends dry periods underground in a water-conserving cocoon and emerges after substantial summer rain to feed and breed in temporary, still-water pools. On development sites, low-lying clay or loamy depressions, claypans and drainage lines may provide breeding habitat even when no frogs are visible.

Conservation status

South Australia, National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972: Vulnerable.

Breeding season

Shoemaker Frogs spend dry periods underground in a protective cocoon and emerge after heavy summer rain. Breeding is concentrated in February and March, but local timing depends on rainfall and whether temporary ponds remain wet for about 40 days.

Reproductive mode: Egg laying, with external fertilisation in water.

Clutch size: Up to 1,000 eggs per female.

Incubation: Not recorded.

Size at hatching or birth: Not recorded.

Age at maturity: Not recorded.

Nest or egg sites: Still or static water in temporary ponds, claypans and dams. Eggs may be laid in long strings or clusters attached to submerged vegetation.

Breeding frequency: One clutch per year recorded, but breeding is opportunistic and rainfall-dependent.

Confirm timing locally using recent rainfall and temperature, and check temporary ponds, claypans, drainage depressions and surrounding soil before clearing, draining or dewatering.

  • Calling: There is no defined calling season. Calling has been documented in January and February, and is associated with summer breeding after heavy rain in February and March.
  • Egg laying: Eggs are laid in ephemeral ponds during February and March. Sites include still water in claypans, temporary ponds and dams, with eggs attached to submerged vegetation or laid in long strings.
  • Tadpoles: Tadpoles follow February and March spawning and develop into frogs in about 40 days, so they may remain in ponds into April. Breeding ponds need to hold water for at least 40 days.
  • Froglets: Froglet timing is inferred from the approximately 40 day tadpole development period after February and March breeding. Juvenile emergence is not separately recorded.
  • Active period: Adults surface after heavy rain and are most active immediately afterwards, with pit trap captures declining to very low levels three to four days after rain stops. Activity has been documented in January and February, while breeding extends into March and may continue into April where ponds persist.
  • Dry season aestivation: During hot or dry conditions, adults burrow underground and form a protective cocoon. Aestivation may last for months or, after prolonged drought, up to several years, so underground refuges can be occupied in any month without suitable rain.
  • Highest clearing risk: Risk is highest in February and March when breeding, eggs and tadpoles are expected, with tadpoles or newly transformed frogs potentially present into April. Adults may also be underground during dry months, so soil disturbance can harm aestivating frogs outside the wet breeding period.

Identification

The Shoemaker Frog is a round, short-legged burrowing frog with fully webbed toes. It is most likely to be encountered at night after heavy summer rain, although individuals may remain underground for months or years between suitable rainfall events.

Adults have a smooth white belly and a shiny golden back with brown or black blotches. The common name refers to the male call, which sounds like a small hammer tapping nails into a shoe.

Male length: 35 to 42 mm

Female length: About 51 mm

Weight: Not reported

Identification: Sexes and similar frogs

Males are smaller than females. Juvenile burrowing frogs can be difficult to identify from morphology, so small individuals should be photographed and, where required, referred to an experienced amphibian taxonomist or identified using call and locality information.

  • Do not assign a juvenile to Shoemaker Frog solely from a brief visual observation where other Neobatrachus species occur.
  • Record the call, dorsal pattern, toe webbing, body size, exact location and nearby breeding water when handling or documenting a suspected individual.

Identification: Field signs

The species has no distinctive tracks, scats, nests, sloughs or eyeshine described in the supplied documents. The most useful field sign is the male call, heard when adults surface after rain. Burrows and underground aestivation are expected, but their dimensions are not reported.

  • Search low-lying clay and loamy depressions after heavy rain, particularly where still water has formed.
  • Treat calling frogs, egg strings and tadpoles as evidence of breeding even if adults are not captured.

Distribution: Known range

The supplied records place the species in Western Australia, from the Shark Bay region north to the Wooramel River, with an additional record from the Lake Wells study area. The available documents do not provide a national map, formal bioregion limits, abundance estimates or separate subpopulation sizes.

Shoemaker Frogs are reported from low-lying areas east and north of Hamelin Pool and north to the Wooramel River. The Lake Wells survey recorded the species in the study area, within the semi-arid zone.

State with records in the supplied documents: Western Australia

Named distribution areas: East and north of Hamelin Pool, north to the Wooramel River, and the Lake Wells study area

Bioregion information: The documents describe the Lake Wells area as semi-arid but do not name a formal bioregion

  • Treat suitable habitat in other parts of arid and semi-arid Australia as potentially occupied where the species is within its known range and heavy rain has created temporary pools.

Distribution: Population information

The Shark Bay source states that the population appears to be stable and has no special conservation status in that source. No population size, density, home range or subpopulation estimate is provided.

Population trend: Appears stable

Population size: Not reported

Home range: Not reported

Habitat: Terrestrial habitat

The species uses semi-arid terrestrial habitats during dry periods and temporary freshwater habitats after rain. Habitat suitability is driven more by soil, drainage and rainfall than by a particular vegetation type in the supplied documents.

Shoemaker Frogs burrow in areas with clay or loamy soils, especially low-lying ground that fills after heavy rain. They may forage in terrestrial habitats when conditions are suitable.

  • Inspect claypans, low depressions and drainage lines associated with hills and ranges before clearing.
  • Include temporary pools and their surrounding terrestrial habitat in impact assessments, because adults may be underground or may feed away from water.

Habitat: Site features

The species has been recorded or considered in a semi-arid study area containing sandplain, sand dune, clay-loam dune, mulga woodland, gypsum dune and samphire habitats. The supplied records do not establish that all of these habitats are equally suitable for the Shoemaker Frog.

Elevation limit: Not reported

Climate setting: Semi-arid, with activity linked to heavy rainfall

  • Give highest survey priority to clay or loamy depressions and drainage lines that retain relatively fresh water after rainfall.
  • Do not exclude a site only because it is dry during the survey period. Burrowing frogs may aestivate underground and are difficult to detect without recent rainfall.

Foraging habitat: Diet and feeding

When active, Shoemaker Frogs forage at night and eat insects. Feeding may occur in terrestrial habitat around temporary breeding pools rather than only within the waterbody.

The documented diet is insects. Adults are mainly active at night when they are not estivating.

Food: Insects

Feeding period: Mainly at night when active

  • Undertake night searches after rain when frogs are likely to be above ground and feeding.
  • Avoid assuming that dry ground around a temporary pool is unused habitat, because adults may forage there when conditions are suitable.

Foraging habitat: Foraging area

A foraging range or feeding distance is not reported. The species can use terrestrial habitat as well as temporary wet areas, so the full assessment area should include the ground around likely breeding depressions.

Foraging range: Not reported

Breeding habitat: Breeding requirements

Breeding is opportunistic and follows summer rain. The species requires still, relatively fresh water that remains long enough for eggs and tadpoles to develop before the pool dries.

Females lay eggs in long strings in still water, and males fertilise them externally. Suitable sites include claypans and other low-lying depressions that fill after heavy rain, including some man-made depressions.

  • Inspect temporary pools, claypans and drainage depressions after summer rainfall.
  • Map pools that hold water for several weeks, because tadpoles need time to complete development.
  • Prevent sediment, hydrocarbons and other construction pollutants from entering temporary breeding pools.

Breeding habitat: Breeding biology

Breeding season: Summer, following summer rains

Clutch size: Up to 1,000 eggs per female

Egg placement: Long strings in still water

Gestation or incubation: Not reported

Tadpole development: Adults develop in about 40 days

Age at maturity: Not reported

Lifespan: Not reported

Sheltering habitat: Aestivation refuge

During dry and hot conditions, Shoemaker Frogs shelter underground and aestivate. They form a protective cocoon that reduces water loss, allowing them to remain inactive until conditions improve.

The species burrows underground to avoid heat and drought. It may remain in aestivation for months or even years between suitable rainfall events.

Refuge type: Underground burrow

Water-conservation structure: Protective cocoon formed around the body

Burrow or cocoon dimensions: Not reported

  • Treat undisturbed soil in and around likely claypan, loam and drainage habitats as potential refuge habitat, even when no frogs are detected.
  • Use fauna spotter catcher controls during soil disturbance in suitable habitat, particularly after rain when frogs may be emerging.

Sheltering habitat: Wet-period shelter

When active, individuals may shelter in or near temporary breeding depressions and surrounding terrestrial habitat. Specific shelter substrates, cover densities and refuge distances are not reported.

Threats: Clearing and hydrology

The supplied documents identify climate change as a potential threat and show that the species depends on temporary freshwater habitats after rain. For projects, the main avoidable risks are removal of wetland depressions, disturbance of aestivation soil and changes to runoff or water quality.

Clearing low-lying clay or loamy ground can remove burrowing refuge and temporary breeding habitat. Altering drainage, runoff or water quality can prevent suitable pools from forming or can cause them to dry before tadpoles complete development.

  • Avoid clearing temporary pools, claypans and connected drainage lines where practicable.
  • Maintain pre-development flow paths and prevent dirty water from entering breeding pools.
  • Schedule ground disturbance outside active breeding and tadpole periods where practicable, while recognising that rainfall can shift the timing.

Threats: Climate and fire

The Shark Bay source identifies global warming and other climate changes as potential threats. The supplied documents do not provide species-specific evidence about fire, road mortality, predators or disease.

  • Consider longer dry periods and less reliable breeding rainfall in project risk assessments.
  • Do not describe fire, predators or disease as confirmed Shoemaker Frog threats without additional local evidence.
  • Record rainfall, calling activity, egg strings, tadpoles and adult captures to support site-specific management.

Threats: Detection and fragmentation risk

Burrowing frogs are difficult to sample when conditions are dry, so a negative dry-season survey does not demonstrate absence. Fragmenting temporary pools from surrounding terrestrial habitat may also reduce access to feeding and aestivation areas.

  • Use rainfall-triggered surveys where project timing allows.
  • Retain terrestrial habitat around breeding depressions and avoid isolating pools with roads, compounds or drainage structures.
  • Use a qualified amphibian ecologist or fauna spotter catcher for handling and identification of small or juvenile Neobatrachus frogs.

Survey methodology: 1. Rain-triggered nocturnal searches

Survey for Shoemaker Frogs should target temporary freshwater habitat after summer rain, when adults emerge from estivation to feed and breed. Dry-season searches are less effective because burrowing frogs remain underground and are difficult to detect.

Survey low-lying clay or loamy areas, claypans, drainage lines, man-made depressions and other places that hold relatively fresh water after rain.

Time searches for the first suitable rainfall event after a dry period, with priority during summer when the species is reported to emerge and breed.

Search at night because Shoemaker Frogs are most active then when they are not estivating.

Use a combination of visual searches and listening for calls around temporary pools and wet drainage features.

Record rainfall, date, start and finish times, air and water conditions, pool condition, search area and all frogs detected.

Survey methodology: 2. Searches of burrowing habitat

Inspect suitable clay and loamy soils, pool margins and nearby terrestrial habitat for frogs emerging after rain and for signs of recent frog activity.

Treat the absence of frogs during dry conditions as inconclusive because burrowing species aestivate underground and are difficult to sample except immediately after rainfall.

Do not excavate occupied burrows or damage the protective cocoon formed by an estivating frog.

Where ground disturbance is proposed in suitable habitat, use a pre-clearance inspection immediately before works and repeat it after a suitable rainfall event where the program allows.

Survey methodology: 3. Wetland and habitat inspection

Map all ephemeral pools, claypans, drainage lines and artificial depressions that could retain relatively fresh water after rainfall.

Inspect connected terrestrial areas because Shoemaker Frogs may forage away from water when conditions are suitable.

Assess whether works could remove, compact or isolate clay and loamy breeding areas, even where no frogs are detected during the survey.

Identify nearby retained habitat for any animal that must be moved during works.

Survey methodology: Minimum effort and reporting

  • Use the relevant state survey guideline and project approval conditions to set the number of survey nights, search hours, transect length, area and any trapping effort, because the supplied documents do not specify a fixed Shoemaker Frog effort standard.
  • Schedule the main survey effort after suitable summer rainfall and document why the rainfall event and conditions were considered suitable.
  • Use appropriately trained and authorised personnel for any capture, handling or relocation, and obtain required state permits before work starts.
  • Submit confirmed records, including negative survey results where required, to the relevant state wildlife database and provide records to the project fauna and environmental reports.
  • Retain location data, photographs, call or observation details, weather and rainfall information, survey effort, person responsible and any permit or approval reference.

Before habitat disturbance: Avoid and minimise

Plan around the species' dependence on temporary water and its ability to remain underground for months or years. Avoid disturbing wetland features and adjacent clay or loamy habitat wherever practicable.

  • Retain claypans, ephemeral pools, drainage lines and natural depressions that can hold relatively fresh water after rain.
  • Retain adjacent clay and loamy ground used for burrowing, shelter and foraging, rather than limiting protection to the visible wetland edge.
  • Maintain links between retained breeding depressions and nearby terrestrial habitat so frogs can move and forage after rain.
  • Set site-specific exclusion areas around breeding and burrowing habitat in consultation with the relevant state authority, because the supplied documents do not provide a standard buffer distance.
  • Keep runoff, sediment, hydrocarbons, concrete washout and other pollutants out of temporary pools and drainage lines.

Before habitat disturbance: Approvals and timing

  • Check the current state conservation listing, wildlife permit requirements and any local approval conditions before survey, handling, relocation or clearing.
  • Check whether the action requires an EPBC Act referral, noting that the supplied project material states that no frogs of conservation significance were likely in that study area, but does not establish the status of every project site.
  • Schedule clearing and earthworks to avoid periods when temporary pools contain breeding frogs, eggs or tadpoles where practicable.
  • Stage works so that retained pools and connected terrestrial habitat remain available while construction proceeds.

Before habitat disturbance: Site preparation

  • Complete a pre-clearance survey of all mapped pools, drainage lines, clay or loamy depressions and adjacent terrestrial habitat before machinery enters the work area.
  • Mark no-go areas, retained pools, drainage lines and habitat links clearly on plans and on the ground.
  • Install exclusion fencing where it can prevent machinery, vehicles and people from entering retained habitat, and inspect the fencing each day.
  • Prepare a fauna management plan that sets out survey triggers, stop-work arrangements, authorised handlers, relocation sites, injury response and reporting responsibilities.

During habitat disturbance: Daily controls and machinery interface

Use daily controls that prevent machinery from entering wetland and burrowing habitat without inspection. The fauna spotter catcher should have authority to pause work whenever an animal, occupied habitat feature or unsuitable condition is identified.

  • Inspect exclusion fencing, access routes, work areas and temporary water bodies before starting each day.
  • Keep the fauna spotter catcher in direct communication with machinery operators and stop plant before the spotter enters an area for inspection.
  • Move machinery only after the spotter has confirmed that the next work area is clear or has released it under the fauna management plan.
  • Use low-impact access routes that avoid claypans, drainage lines, pool margins and connected clay or loamy ground.
  • Suspend earthworks that could drain, fill, pollute or isolate a temporary pool until the fauna spotter and environmental officer have assessed the risk.

During habitat disturbance: Habitat feature handling

  • Treat wet depressions, pool margins, drainage lines and areas of suitable clay or loamy soil as fauna habitat even when no frog is visible.
  • Do not excavate or collapse suspected occupied burrows during a pre-clearance inspection or while a frog is being assessed.
  • Do not pump water from a pool containing frogs, eggs or tadpoles without an approved fauna management method and the required authority.
  • If logs, rocks or other ground cover are present, lift or move them only under spotter supervision and check underneath before disturbance.
  • Keep sediment controls and stockpiles away from pools and drainage lines so temporary breeding water is not degraded.

During habitat disturbance: If a frog is found

  • Stop work around the animal and establish a small exclusion area until the authorised fauna handler has assessed it.
  • Do not allow untrained workers to catch, carry, retain or release the frog.
  • Minimise handling, keep the frog cool and moist without placing it in contaminated water, and follow the approved handling and relocation procedure.
  • Relocate an uninjured frog only when authorised, to nearby retained habitat that is suitable for burrowing and foraging and will not be affected by the works.
  • Take injured or distressed animals to an appropriately qualified veterinarian or wildlife carer under the project response procedure.
  • Stop work and seek advice if eggs, tadpoles, multiple frogs or an active breeding pool is found, or if the approved relocation site is unavailable.

During habitat disturbance: Records and stop-work reporting

  • Record every observation, capture, relocation, injury, death and stop-work event with coordinates, date, time, habitat condition, photographs and the people involved.
  • Record rainfall and water conditions when frogs, eggs or tadpoles are found because detection and breeding are strongly linked to rainfall and temporary water.
  • Notify the environmental officer and relevant authority when an animal is injured or killed, when works enter an exclusion area, or when an unexpected breeding site is identified.
  • Review controls before work resumes and document the decision to restart.

After habitat disturbance: Post-clearance inspection

Post-clearance checks should confirm that no frogs remain trapped in excavations or isolated from retained habitat. Monitoring should focus on temporary water and the nearby terrestrial areas used for burrowing and foraging.

  • Inspect excavations, trenches, sumps, pipes, stored materials and sediment controls before they are backfilled or removed.
  • Check retained pools, drainage lines and adjacent clay or loamy habitat for stranded or displaced frogs after rain and before areas are reopened.
  • Remove fauna hazards, or provide safe escape measures, while open excavations remain on site.
  • Confirm that exclusion fencing, access controls and pollution controls remain effective throughout construction.

After habitat disturbance: Monitoring and reporting

  • Monitor retained temporary pools and nearby terrestrial habitat after suitable summer rainfall using the approved project method.
  • Compare post-work observations with the pre-clearance habitat map, survey effort and rainfall conditions rather than treating a dry-period non-detection as evidence of absence.
  • Report confirmed records, breeding observations, mortalities, relocations, incidents and rehabilitation progress to the project environmental officer and relevant state wildlife database.
  • Maintain fauna controls until the environmental officer confirms that construction risks have ended.

After habitat disturbance: Offsets and corrective action

  • Apply any offset, habitat replacement or rehabilitation requirement imposed by the approval or state authority.
  • Repair drainage changes, sediment impacts or accidental damage to retained pools and connected terrestrial habitat as soon as practicable.
  • Escalate repeated mortality, loss of breeding water or failure of relocation habitat to the approval holder and relevant authority.

Rehabilitation actions: Restore breeding and burrowing habitat

Rehabilitation should restore the temporary-water and burrowing conditions used by Shoemaker Frogs. The supplied documents do not identify a required planting list or frog-specific rehabilitation design, so use locally appropriate methods approved for the site and state.

  • Reinstate natural drainage and shallow depressions that can hold relatively fresh water after rainfall, without creating permanent polluted or saline water.
  • Restore compacted clay and loamy areas to a soil structure that allows burrowing and does not shed water away from suitable depressions.
  • Avoid introducing fish or other aquatic animals into temporary pools because Shoemaker Frog tadpoles develop in short-lived water bodies.
  • Use locally native plant species suited to the original clay, loamy, drainage-line or surrounding terrestrial habitat, based on the pre-clearing vegetation community.
  • Remove construction spoil, rubbish and excess sediment from pool margins and drainage lines.

Rehabilitation actions: Retain habitat structure and connectivity

  • Re-establish continuous movement routes between temporary pools, drainage lines and nearby terrestrial foraging and burrowing habitat.
  • Replace approved ground-cover features such as logs and rocks only where they occurred before disturbance and will not obstruct drainage or create a machinery hazard.
  • Do not install hollows or nest boxes as a substitute for Shoemaker Frog habitat, because this species uses underground burrows and temporary water rather than tree hollows.
  • Control weeds and prevent new access tracks from fragmenting retained pools, claypans or adjacent burrowing ground.

Rehabilitation actions: Fire, predators and success measures

  • Manage fire in accordance with the regional fire plan and rehabilitation objectives, recognising that the supplied documents do not specify a Shoemaker Frog fire interval or prescribed burn treatment.
  • Control domestic and feral predators where required by the approved site plan and state requirements, without disturbing occupied burrows or breeding pools.
  • Inspect rehabilitation after rainfall for water retention, erosion, pollution, successful drainage reconnection and frog use.
  • Use successful establishment of native ground cover, functioning temporary pools, intact burrowing soils and confirmed frog or tadpole records as project success measures where monitoring approvals allow.
  • Continue monitoring through suitable summer rainfall events and report failures, corrective actions and confirmed records to the project environmental officer and relevant state wildlife database.

Sources