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Rainbow Bee-eater (Merops ornatus)

The Rainbow Bee-eater is a colourful, ground-nesting insectivorous bird found across mainland Australia. It may breed in loose colonies, so clearing, excavation and earthworks can affect several breeding pairs at one site, even though the species is listed as least concern in Australia. In Queensland, tampering with a breeding place of this least concern colonial breeder requires the higher risk species management program pathway.

Conservation status

Queensland, Nature Conservation Act 1992: Colonial breeder. Least concern in Queensland, but it breeds in colonies, so tampering with a breeding place needs a high risk species management program rather than the low risk program.

Migration and breeding season

Rainbow Bee-eaters are migratory across much of southern Australia, while some northern birds remain year round. Breeding is mainly from October to February in the north, and November to January in the south, with timing varying between regions and years.

Breeding mode: Ground-nesting bird. Both parents select and excavate a tunnel leading to a terminal nesting chamber. Helpers may assist with incubation and feeding.

Nest and breeding places: Nests are dug into sandy banks, flat ground, river, creek and dam banks, roadside cuttings, gravel pits, quarries and cliffs. Tunnels may be up to 1 m long and may be lined with grass or feathers.

Colonies: Usually breeds in loose colonies of up to 50 pairs, although some pairs nest alone. Tunnels may be close together or shared with other bee-eaters and occasionally other bird species.

Clutch size: 2 to 8 pearl-white eggs, usually 5.

Incubation: Both parents incubate for about 21 to 31 days.

Nestling and fledging period: Young remain in the nest for about 23 to 36 days. They may continue to be fed for 2 to 4 weeks after leaving the nest.

Recognising an active breeding place: Look for adults entering or leaving burrows, fresh spoil at tunnel entrances, repeated flight paths, alarm calls, food being carried to a bank, and several occupied entrances close together. Treat the whole bank or colony area as potentially active until checked by a suitably experienced ecologist.

Timing can shift between northern and southern populations, rainfall patterns and individual sites, so active burrows and colony activity should be checked before works even outside the usual nesting months. Colonies need special care because many pairs can be concentrated in one sandy bank or cutting, and flushing adults or collapsing entrances can affect several nests at once; where an active colony is found, keep works outside the nesting period where practicable and set a site-specific no-go buffer with an ecologist rather than relying on a generic distance.

  • Northern Australia breeding: Breeding in northern Australia is linked to the period before and after the rainy season, with documented activity from August to January and broader breeding records extending to February.
  • Southern Australia breeding: Southern breeding is concentrated from November to January, with some broader records placing breeding from October to February.
  • Northward movement from southern Australia: Southern birds generally move north after breeding from February to June, most often from March to May, to spend winter in northern Australia and sometimes farther north.
  • Return to southern breeding areas: Birds return to southern breeding areas from August to early November, with most movement from mid-September to mid-October.
  • Non-breeding presence and roosting in Australia: Northern populations may remain in Australia year round, and non-breeding birds roost communally in dense undergrowth or large trees.
  • Highest clearing risk: The greatest risk is during active nesting, especially October to January, when burrows may contain eggs or dependent young and colonies can be disturbed by clearing, earthworks, vibration or repeated vehicle movement.

Identification: Appearance and size

Rainbow Bee-eaters are active, conspicuous birds with bright plumage and a distinctive flight style. They are often detected by their calls and by repeated use of exposed perches near open ground or water.

Adults have green upperparts, a blue lower abdomen, coppery flight feathers, bright orange underwings and a black tail. The golden crown, red eye, blue edged black eye stripe, orange yellow throat and black breast band are useful field marks.

The two central tail feathers form long streamers. They are longer in males. Females have shorter, thicker streamers. Juveniles are duller and greener, and lack the adult breast band and long streamers.

Adult mass: 20 to 33 g is typical in the available measurements

Flight: Fast, twisting and undulating when pursuing insects

  • Length: 21 to 28 cm.
  • The bill is long, slim and slightly down-curved.
  • The species is the only Australian member of the bee-eater family, Meropidae.

Identification: Calls and similar species

The usual call is a liquid, trilling or vibrating prrp prrp, commonly given in flight. Birds perched together may use a softer, slower call.

On Curtis Island and in some nearby areas, a Rainbow Bee-eater could be confused with a Forest Kingfisher. The Rainbow Bee-eater is more slender and has a finer, slightly down-curved bill.

  • Listen for the flight call before assuming that a fast moving bird is a bee-eater.
  • Record repeated call locations during pre-clearing checks, especially near sandy banks and open water.

Identification: Field signs

Look for narrow, often inconspicuous tunnels entering sandy banks, loose soil or flat sandy ground. A tunnel may lead to a terminal chamber and may be lined with grass or feathers.

Birds commonly return to a perch after catching prey. Fence posts, overhead wires, dead branches and other exposed perches can help locate feeding activity.

  • Fresh spoil or loose soil at a tunnel entrance.
  • Repeated birds entering or leaving one section of bank.
  • Adults carrying insects towards a bank or calling from nearby perches.
  • Several tunnel entrances close together, indicating a loose colony.

Distribution: Australian range

The Rainbow Bee-eater occurs across mainland Australia and is widespread in suitable open country. Distribution and movement vary between northern resident birds and southern birds that migrate north in winter.

The species occurs across mainland Australia, including New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Victoria, Western Australia and the Northern Territory. It is absent from Tasmania in the distribution information available here.

It is found in many lightly timbered parts of the mainland and can occur in both natural and highly modified landscapes.

  • Northern populations may remain in the north year round.
  • Southern populations use summer breeding areas and move north during winter.
  • The species can occur on near shore islands as well as the mainland.

Distribution: Seasonal movement

Southern birds generally move north after breeding between February and June, most often between March and May. They generally return to southern breeding areas between August and early November, most often between mid September and mid October.

Movement patterns are not uniform. Some northern birds are resident, while others move to different habitats or travel to southern Australia.

  • Winter range can include northern Australia, New Guinea and eastern Indonesia.
  • Birds may gather in flocks of up to 500 during migration.
  • The breeding season is generally November to January in the south and August to January in the north.

Distribution: Overseas range

Some Rainbow Bee-eaters migrate beyond Australia to New Guinea and eastern Indonesia. Rare records have also occurred on islands near Japan and Taiwan.

  • Treat suitable habitat as potentially occupied during both breeding and migration periods.
  • A lack of birds during one site visit does not demonstrate that a site is unused.

Habitat: Vegetation and landscape

Rainbow Bee-eaters use open habitats with nearby insect-rich areas. On works sites, check both the area to be cleared and the surrounding landscape for feeding, roosting and nesting habitat.

Suitable habitat includes open forest, woodland, shrubland, grassland and cleared areas with remnant vegetation. The species also occurs in farmland, orchards, vineyards, parks, gardens and disturbed areas.

Sites near permanent or seasonal water can be attractive because flying insects are often abundant there.

  • Open eucalypt woodland and forest.
  • Riparian woodland and floodplain vegetation.
  • Mangroves, saltpan areas and other coastal habitats.
  • Farmland, paddocks and cleared land with scattered trees or perches.

Habitat: Modified and disturbed sites

Quarries, mines, gravel pits, road cuttings and other exposed earthworks can provide nesting banks or feeding areas. Active sites must be checked before excavation, battering, filling or rehabilitation.

A site may support feeding birds even where there is little native vegetation. Retain awareness of nearby banks, tracks, stockpiles and drainage features.

  • Inspect exposed sandy faces and loose soil before machinery enters.
  • Check temporary and permanent earth piles where birds are repeatedly seen.
  • Include adjacent land in the habitat assessment, not just the construction footprint.

Habitat: Site assessment

Map open feeding areas, water, exposed banks and likely perches together. This gives a better picture of how the site is being used than a vegetation map alone.

  • Search during suitable daylight conditions when birds are active.
  • Record birds flying, perching, carrying prey or entering banks.
  • Recheck habitat if works extend into a new area or the season changes.

Foraging habitat: Diet and feeding behaviour

The Rainbow Bee-eater catches most prey in the air and usually returns to a perch to handle it. Foraging activity can extend across the whole work area and may be concentrated near water, flowering vegetation and open ground.

Bees and wasps make up much of the diet. Other prey includes dragonflies, damselflies, beetles, butterflies and moths. Birds may eat several hundred insects in a day.

A bird watches from a perch, flies out to capture prey and returns to beat the insect against the perch. Bees and wasps are rubbed against the perch to remove the sting before they are swallowed.

Observed foraging range from a perch: A potential meal may be detected up to 45 m away

Drinking: Usually drinks little because insect prey contains substantial moisture

  • Watch fence posts, overhead wires, dead branches and tall shrubs.
  • Look for repeated flights from the same perch over open ground.
  • Check wetland edges, drainage lines, dams and riparian areas for concentrated activity.

Foraging habitat: Features to retain during works

Where practicable, retain safe perches and connected open feeding areas around active nesting places. Avoid blocking access between a nesting bank, water and nearby feeding habitat.

Do not assume that a cleared or highly modified area has no fauna value. Rainbow Bee-eaters regularly use disturbed sites and farmland.

  • Avoid unnecessary removal of perches near active breeding places.
  • Keep sediment, dust and runoff from degrading nearby water and insect habitat.
  • Use fauna spotter observations to refine the work boundary and staging.

Foraging habitat: Field recording

Record the location and direction of repeated foraging flights. This can identify habitat outside the immediate nest area that may still be needed by breeding birds.

  • Note the number of birds seen together.
  • Record prey carrying, courtship feeding and flights towards a bank.
  • Photograph habitat and perches where this can be done without approaching an active nest.

Breeding habitat: Nest structure and location

Rainbow Bee-eaters are ground nesters. They excavate narrow tunnels in sandy banks or flat ground, and the same suitable bank can support several pairs in a loose colony.

Both sexes select and prepare a nesting site. The tunnel leads to a terminal chamber, which may be lined with grass or feathers. Tunnels are commonly about 89.4 cm long and can extend to more than one metre.

Known nesting settings include river, creek and dam banks, roadside cuttings, gravel pits, quarries, cliffs and sandy ground. Some pairs nest alone.

Breeding season: South, November to January. North, August to January, or before and after the rainy season

Eggs: Usually 3 to 7, with another field account recording 2 to 8

Incubation and nest period: Both parents incubate for about 22 to 31 days. Young may remain in the nest for 23 to 36 days

  • Inspect sandy or friable banks before clearing or earthworks.
  • Check vertical and sloping faces, including old quarry and mine faces.
  • Look for tunnels on flat ground where vegetation is sparse or recently disturbed.

Breeding habitat: How to recognise an active breeding place

An active breeding place may have adults entering or leaving a tunnel, carrying insects, calling repeatedly near one bank, or defending the entrance. Fresh spoil, tracks and a clean tunnel entrance can support the assessment, but entrances may be difficult to see.

Use observations from a safe distance and avoid repeated approaches to the bank. A tunnel that appears quiet may still contain eggs or young.

  • Watch for repeated tunnel use over a period of time.
  • Look for adults carrying food towards the same entrance.
  • Treat grouped entrances as a potential colony until assessed by a suitably experienced ecologist.
  • Mark the location discreetly so machinery and foot traffic can be controlled.

Breeding habitat: Breeding assistance and productivity

Both parents feed the young. Helpers may also incubate eggs and feed nestlings. Cane Toads can enter nesting tunnels, prey on nestlings and reduce breeding output.

  • Do not collapse, fill, compact or cover a suspected tunnel.
  • Do not relocate soil or alter a nesting bank without an approved method and species advice.
  • Manage nearby works so adults can continue to reach the nest and feeding habitat.

Sheltering habitat: Roosting places

Outside the breeding period, Rainbow Bee-eaters roost communally. Roosts may be easy to overlook because birds can move between dense vegetation and large trees as conditions change.

Non-breeding roosts have been recorded in dense undergrowth and large trees. In coastal and riparian settings, mangroves, floodplain eucalypt woodland, open forest and riparian woodland may provide roosting habitat.

Roost locations are not limited to mature native vegetation. Check large trees and dense cover near open feeding areas, water and migration routes.

  • Dense shrubs and thickets.
  • Large trees, including trees near wetlands or open paddocks.
  • Mangroves and riparian vegetation.
  • Sheltered vegetation near active feeding areas.

Sheltering habitat: Recognising a roost

A roost may be indicated by repeated arrivals near dusk, birds gathering in one area, or a concentrated morning departure. Calls can help locate birds, but avoid entering dense cover to confirm a roost.

  • Observe from outside the roost where possible.
  • Record arrival and departure directions.
  • Check whether proposed lighting, night works or vegetation removal would affect the roost.

Sheltering habitat: Roost protection during works

Avoid unnecessary clearing of dense vegetation or large trees used repeatedly by birds. If a roost is suspected near works, the project ecologist should set a site-specific exclusion area and timing controls based on the activity observed.

  • Keep workers, vehicles and bright lights away from a roost where practicable.
  • Stage vegetation removal so alternative cover remains available.
  • Reassess the site if birds begin using a new roost during construction.

Colonies and breeding places: What a colony looks like

Rainbow Bee-eaters often nest in loose colonies, although some pairs nest alone. A colony is a group of nearby tunnel nests in a sandy or friable bank, flat sandy ground or an exposed cutting, with adults sharing the surrounding feeding landscape.

A colony may appear as a series of small tunnel entrances along one bank or across a patch of loose ground. Nests can be close together without forming a dense, obvious group, so the full breeding place may extend beyond the most visible entrances.

Colonies may contain up to 50 pairs. The species can also share tunnels or nesting areas with other Rainbow Bee-eaters and, sometimes, other bird species.

Typical colony size: Loose colonies may contain up to 50 pairs

Site fidelity: Specific fidelity rates are not established here. Treat a suitable site as potentially reusable in following breeding seasons

  • Banks of rivers, creeks and dams.
  • Roadside cuttings, gravel pits, quarries and cliffs.
  • Sandy flats or loose soil away from a distinct bank.
  • Nearby trees, shrubs, wires or other perches used for feeding and watchfulness.

Colonies and breeding places: Breeding-place assessment

A breeding place includes more than the tunnel itself. It includes the bank or ground containing the nests, the approach area, nearby perches and the access route to feeding habitat and water.

Before clearing or excavation, inspect the full face and adjoining ground. Survey both sides of a bank where access is safe, and check old or apparently inactive entrances.

  • Map every visible entrance and the extent of the suitable bank.
  • Record active, inactive and uncertain entrances separately.
  • Watch from a distance for adults entering, leaving or carrying food.
  • Keep people and machinery away until activity has been assessed.

Colonies and breeding places: Disturbance and work controls

There is no single species-wide disturbance distance that can be applied to every Rainbow Bee-eater colony. Set a site-specific buffer around the active breeding place, based on the number of nests, visibility, access, noise, vibration, dust, machinery movement and the ability of adults to reach the nest.

Plan works outside the local nesting period wherever practicable. If work must occur during breeding, use a suitably qualified ecologist to define the buffer, monitor behaviour and approve staged methods. Avoid flushing adults repeatedly, blocking tunnel entrances or causing collapse of the bank.

  • Keep clearing, battering, drilling and vehicle movements outside the active breeding area.
  • Use physical exclusion controls that do not obstruct bird access.
  • Stop work if adults show repeated alarm, mobbing, abandonment of feeding flights or sudden loss of tunnel activity.
  • Review buffers if birds continue to flush or if new nests are found.

Colonies and breeding places: Queensland compliance

In Queensland, the Rainbow Bee-eater is a least concern colonial breeder. Tampering with its breeding place requires the higher risk species management program pathway under the Nature Conservation (Animals) Regulation 2020, rather than the low risk pathway used for other least concern animals.

DETSI defines colonial breeders as animals of the same kind that coexist in close association for breeding. Confirm the required approval, species management program and site controls before works affect an active breeding place.

  • Engage the project ecologist early, before finalising the clearing footprint.
  • Document the colony, proposed impact, timing and mitigation measures.
  • Brief the fauna spotter catcher and construction supervisor on the approved controls.

Threats: Clearing and earthworks

The main works-site risks are loss or collapse of nesting banks, disturbance during breeding, removal of roosting vegetation and reduced access to feeding habitat. Cane Toads and introduced predators can add pressure at nesting places.

Excavation, grading, compaction, filling and bank stabilisation can destroy tunnels or make suitable nesting ground unavailable. Quarries, mines, cuttings and stockpiles can attract birds but can also be hazardous when machinery is operating.

Inspect all exposed banks and loose ground before disturbance. Retain or protect active nesting places unless an approved management approach allows otherwise.

  • Do not collapse or cover tunnel entrances.
  • Control vibration, dust, runoff and vehicle access near active banks.
  • Include temporary work areas and access tracks in the fauna assessment.

Threats: Noise, movement and flushing

Repeated approach by workers, machinery and vehicles can flush adults from a colony. Sustained disturbance may reduce feeding and increase the risk that nests are abandoned or exposed to predators.

Use a site-specific buffer and monitor bird behaviour. Stop and reassess if adults repeatedly leave the bank or stop carrying food.

  • Keep works outside the local breeding period where practicable.
  • Avoid sudden machinery movement towards the colony.
  • Use spotters to maintain the exclusion area during high risk activities.

Threats: Habitat loss and fragmentation

Removing nearby woodland, riparian vegetation, mangroves, large trees or dense undergrowth can reduce perches, feeding habitat and roosting cover. The impact may extend beyond the nest bank.

Retain links between the breeding place, water and open feeding areas where practicable. Plan night lighting and vegetation removal to avoid repeatedly disturbing roosts.

  • Protect nearby permanent water and riparian vegetation.
  • Retain suitable perches near feeding areas.
  • Stage clearing so roosting and feeding cover is not removed all at once.

Threats: Predators and other pressures

Cane Toads can use nesting tunnels as shelter and prey on nestlings. Foxes, cats, rats and other introduced predators may dig into nests or take young. Vehicle, fence, powerline, building and wind turbine collisions are also recognised pressures.

Manage waste, food and shelter that could attract predators to the work area. Include collision risks in the design review where flight paths cross infrastructure.

  • Do not leave open spoil piles or pipes that create additional fauna hazards.
  • Use predator management only under an approved, site-specific program.
  • Check fences, wires and lighting where repeated bird movements are recorded.

Survey methodology: 1. Desktop assessment

Rainbow bee-eaters are conspicuous, fast-flying birds that are usually detected by sight and call. Surveys should cover sandy banks, flat sandy ground, cuttings, gravel pits, quarries, river and creek banks, dams, cliffs, nearby water, woodland and likely roost trees.

Review recent records, aerial imagery, vegetation mapping, previous approvals and site photographs before the field visit.

Map sandy banks, exposed soil, roadside cuttings, gravel pits, quarries, cliffs, waterbodies, riparian vegetation and mature trees or dense vegetation that could support roosting.

Treat a cluster of tunnel entrances, repeated bird activity or a shared roost as a potential breeding place or colony until checked by a suitably qualified ecologist.

Survey methodology: 2. Targeted field survey

Survey during daylight, when birds are active and flying insects are available. Walk or slowly inspect all suitable banks, cuttings, pits, quarries and flat sandy areas.

Watch from a position that does not obstruct flight paths or approach tunnel entrances. Listen for the liquid prrp prrp call, especially from birds in flight.

Inspect banks and ground faces for narrow tunnel entrances, fresh spoil, worn soil, tracks, feathers, droppings, adults entering or leaving tunnels, and birds carrying food.

Search nearby perches such as trees, fence posts and overhead wires. Record birds foraging over water, open ground, woodland and cleared areas.

  • Use binoculars where possible and avoid standing directly in front of a tunnel entrance.
  • Do not enter, probe, smoke, fill or excavate a suspected tunnel during a survey.
  • Repeat the inspection where weather, poor visibility, heavy rain, strong wind or high site activity may reduce detection.

Survey methodology: 3. Timing and survey effort

Plan targeted breeding place surveys before clearing and again immediately before works where suitable habitat remains accessible.

In southern Australia, give particular attention to the breeding period from November to January. In northern Australia, breeding is associated with the period before and after the rainy season, and regional timing should be confirmed with a local ecologist.

Allow for seasonal movement. Southern birds generally move north after breeding from February to June, mostly from March to May, and return to breeding areas from August to early November, mostly from mid-September to mid-October.

Use additional observations during migration periods because groups may be larger, with reported groups of up to 500 birds.

  • Survey all suitable habitat, not only the proposed clearing footprint.
  • Schedule observations across more than one suitable daylight period where the risk assessment identifies a possible colony, roost or breeding place.
  • Use local weather and insect activity to judge whether conditions are suitable for detecting aerial foragers.

Survey methodology: 4. Records and mapping

Record the date, time, weather, surveyors, areas searched, access limitations and survey conditions.

Map each tunnel entrance, active or suspected colony, roost, flock, flight path, perch, foraging area and nearby waterbody with photographs and coordinates.

Record the number of adults, juveniles and helpers where they can be identified, behaviour such as digging, carrying food or entering tunnels, and the direction of regular movements.

Describe the substrate, bank height and condition, vegetation cover, nearby disturbance, predators, cane toads and the proposed works.

  • Keep suspected active breeding places separate from inactive or abandoned entrances.
  • Photograph from a safe distance and include a scale only where this can be done without approaching the entrance.
  • Provide the mapped information to the project ecologist and site supervisor before disturbance begins.

Before habitat disturbance: 1. Desktop assessment and approvals

Avoidance is the preferred control for rainbow bee-eater breeding places and communal roosts. Confirm the legal pathway, complete a pre-clearance check and brief the whole crew before machinery or earthworks enter suitable habitat.

Confirm whether the action may affect a matter of national environmental significance and whether an EPBC Act referral or approval is required. A least concern status does not remove the need to check the proposed action and its impacts.

In Queensland, treat a rainbow bee-eater colony or shared breeding place as a high risk matter under the Nature Conservation (Animals) Regulation 2020 framework. Obtain and follow the required species management program before tampering with the breeding place of this colonial breeder.

Check state or territory wildlife legislation, permits, local conditions and approval requirements before capture, handling, relocation, nest disturbance or habitat clearing.

Have the approved management plan, permit conditions, maps, contact details and stop work procedure available at the site.

  • Nominate the person responsible for legal compliance.
  • Use the most current agency guidance and approval conditions for the project location.
  • Do not assume that a general fauna permit authorises disturbance of an active breeding place.

Before habitat disturbance: 2. Avoidance and timing

Redesign the work area where practicable to retain sandy banks, nesting faces, flat sandy ground, nearby foraging habitat, roost trees and movement corridors.

Schedule clearing and earthworks outside the local breeding period wherever practicable. Consider migration and return periods when planning works in southern Australia.

For northern projects, obtain local advice on the timing of breeding around the rainy season. Avoid starting works when adults are digging, incubating, feeding young or regularly entering tunnels.

Retain nearby insect rich habitat and water sources where they are needed for foraging.

  • Fence and sign the no-go area before machinery arrives.
  • Keep vehicle routes, stockpiles, lighting and temporary facilities outside mapped breeding places and roosts.
  • Do not use a generic buffer without a site assessment. Set the exclusion area to prevent vibration, dust, noise, vehicle movement and people from affecting the breeding place.

Before habitat disturbance: 3. Pre-clearance survey and exclusion

Complete a final pre-clearance inspection of all banks, cuttings, pits, quarries, flat sandy areas, roost trees and adjacent habitat shortly before disturbance.

Mark every active or suspected tunnel, colony, roost and flight path on the ground and in the construction drawings.

Establish a clearly marked exclusion zone around an active breeding place or colony. The project ecologist should define the extent and duration from the site layout, substrate, line of sight, noise, vibration, access and approval conditions.

Maintain the exclusion zone until the ecologist confirms that the breeding place is no longer active or the approval provides another lawful pathway.

  • Use bunting, rigid fencing and signs that are visible to operators.
  • Prevent access by machinery, vehicles, workers, domestic animals and unauthorised fauna handling.
  • Inspect the exclusion fencing after rain, flooding, vehicle movements and strong winds.

Before habitat disturbance: 4. Crew induction and readiness

Induct all workers, operators, subcontractors and visitors before they enter the work area.

Show photographs or maps of tunnels, active breeding places, colonies, roosts, adult birds and young. Explain that tunnels may be narrow and may be shared by several pairs or other birds.

Explain the stop work authority, the location of exclusion zones, the approved fauna contacts and the injured animal pathway.

Ensure the spotter catcher has suitable equipment, a current authority and a clear route to a wildlife carer or veterinarian.

  • Tell operators never to fill, collapse, block, probe or drive over a suspected tunnel.
  • Keep dogs, cats and other animals away from breeding places.
  • Record attendance and retain the induction record with the project environmental records.

During habitat disturbance: 1. Sequential clearing and supervision

Use a staged approach that gives birds and other fauna a chance to move away before vegetation or ground disturbance proceeds. Work must stop if an active breeding place, colony, roost, young bird or injured animal is found in or near the work area.

Clear habitat in small, sequential stages from the edge of the approved work area towards retained habitat. Keep escape routes open and avoid isolating animals between machinery and barriers.

Maintain a fauna spotter catcher in the active work area whenever required by the approval, management plan or risk assessment.

Use low speed plant and pause between stages so the spotter catcher can inspect the next area and check retained vegetation and ground faces.

Keep all works outside mapped exclusion zones unless the approval and species management program expressly allow the action.

  • Stop plant before the next section is disturbed.
  • Check ground faces, spoil piles, cuttings, trees and dense vegetation before moving machinery.
  • Do not chase flying birds or deliberately flush them from a breeding place or roost.

During habitat disturbance: 2. Stop work and active breeding places

The spotter catcher must have authority to stop work immediately if a tunnel, active colony, nest chamber, adult carrying food, incubating bird, chick, fledgling, injured bird or communal roost is found.

Withdraw people and plant to the agreed safe location. Keep the area quiet and prevent further approach.

Contact the project ecologist and the approval holder. Recheck the permit, species management program and any regulator notification requirement before work resumes.

Extend or establish the exclusion zone if birds are being flushed, if vibration or dust reaches the breeding place, or if adults stop entering or leaving the tunnels.

  • Do not fill, excavate, block, relocate or destroy a tunnel without written authority under the relevant approval.
  • Do not use noise, smoke, water, nets or machinery to force birds from a breeding place.
  • Leave the site undisturbed until the ecologist confirms the next lawful action.

During habitat disturbance: 3. Handling and relocation

Only an authorised and appropriately trained person may capture, handle or transport a rainbow bee-eater.

Avoid handling whenever the bird can move safely without assistance. Do not attempt to remove adults, eggs or chicks from a tunnel unless specifically authorised.

If an animal must be moved under an approval, use the approved method and release or transfer it to the approved location as soon as practicable.

Keep the bird in a quiet, dark, ventilated container away from heat, fumes, machinery and public access. Do not provide food or water unless directed by a wildlife carer or veterinarian.

  • Record the reason for handling, the authority used, the time, the condition of the bird and the release or transfer location.
  • Keep adults, juveniles and dependent birds together where the approved method allows.
  • Never relocate a colony or breeding place as an informal site measure.

During habitat disturbance: 4. Injured animal pathway and records

If a bird is injured, stop nearby work and contact the spotter catcher, project ecologist, licensed wildlife carer or veterinarian. Treat collision, crushing, heat stress and entanglement as urgent cases.

Keep people and vehicles away from the bird and protect it from predators. Do not chase a bird that is still mobile unless directed by the authorised handler.

Record the location, time, likely cause, species, age class, injuries, photographs, handler, authority, advice received and final outcome.

Report any death, injury, unauthorised disturbance, tunnel damage, colony disturbance or permit breach through the project incident system and to the relevant authority where required.

  • Use the project emergency contact list rather than relying on informal advice.
  • Retain photographs and GPS records with the daily fauna log.
  • Include near misses, such as a bird flushed from a breeding place, in the incident review.

After habitat disturbance: 1. Post clearance inspection

Post clearance checks confirm that no fauna remains trapped and that exclusion areas and breeding places have not been damaged. Use the results to close out approval conditions and improve controls for later work stages.

Inspect the cleared area, retained vegetation, banks, cuttings, pits, spoil piles, fences and access tracks after each work stage.

Look for live or dead birds, young birds, damaged tunnels, fresh spoil, blocked entrances, feathers, tracks and signs of continued colony use.

Check that no animals are trapped in trenches, pipes, drains, culverts, pits, buildings or temporary structures. Provide escape ramps or cover openings where required by the site fauna plan.

Keep exclusion fencing in place until the ecologist confirms that the area is safe to release.

  • Complete the inspection before the next work stage begins.
  • Reinspect after heavy rain, flooding, major earthworks or an unexpected change in the work footprint.
  • Photograph any damaged bank, tunnel or roost and mark it on the site plan.

After habitat disturbance: 2. Monitoring active and retained sites

Monitor retained breeding places, colonies, roosts and nearby foraging habitat at the frequency set by the approval or project ecologist.

Record adult attendance, tunnel use, food carrying, fledglings, helpers, disturbance, predators, cane toads, dust, vibration, lighting and changes to water or vegetation.

Continue monitoring through the relevant breeding period where works occur near an active colony or where approval conditions require it.

Use the results to adjust buffers, work hours, access routes, lighting and machinery controls.

  • Keep monitoring observers outside the exclusion zone unless access is authorised.
  • Use consistent observation points and mapping so results can be compared between visits.
  • Escalate reduced adult attendance, repeated flushing, tunnel collapse or evidence of predation.

After habitat disturbance: 3. Relocated animals and outcomes

Confirm the condition and outcome of every handled or relocated bird with the authorised handler, wildlife carer or veterinarian.

Record the release or transfer site, date, time, condition, tag or other identification where used, and any follow up observations.

Where young, dependent birds or a breeding pair were affected under an approved action, complete the required follow up and notify the project ecologist promptly if adults do not return.

Do not declare a breeding place clear solely because birds were not seen during one inspection.

  • Link each animal record to the relevant work package, approval condition and incident number.
  • Close out the record only after the authorised person confirms the outcome.
  • Report mortalities and failed breeding attempts in the project fauna summary.

After habitat disturbance: 4. Reporting and incident review

Prepare a fauna report covering survey effort, mapped breeding places and roosts, exclusion zones, clearing stages, inspections, incidents, animals handled, outcomes and rehabilitation actions.

Compare actual impacts with the approved impact assessment and species management program.

Review every stop work event, tunnel disturbance, collision, injury, mortality and unauthorised entry. Identify the immediate and underlying causes.

Update the work method, induction, site map and risk assessment before the next similar activity.

  • Submit reports to the approval holder and relevant regulator within the required timeframe.
  • Retain GPS data, photographs, daily logs, permits, inductions and correspondence in the project records.
  • Use lessons from the review to improve planning for later breeding seasons and other colonial birds.

Rehabilitation actions: 1. Restore breeding and foraging habitat

Rehabilitation should restore the open ground, sandy substrates, vegetation and insect producing areas that support rainbow bee-eaters. Protect retained banks and roost vegetation first, then use replacement features only where a suitably qualified ecologist confirms that they suit the site.

Recontour disturbed banks and ground to stable, natural profiles that retain suitable sandy or friable substrate where this is consistent with erosion and safety requirements.

Restore native vegetation around water, riparian areas, woodland edges and retained banks. Keep some open ground and clear flight space for aerial foraging.

Reconnect breeding places with nearby perches, foraging habitat and safe movement routes.

Prevent compaction, sealing, excessive rock armouring and weed invasion across suitable sandy nesting areas.

  • Use local native seed and tubestock suited to the regional ecosystem.
  • Stage rehabilitation so erosion controls do not block known or potential tunnel entrances.
  • Keep stockpiles, access tracks and permanent structures away from restored breeding faces.

Rehabilitation actions: 2. Replacement breeding features

Do not install nest boxes or bat boxes for rainbow bee-eaters. They are ground nesting birds and use tunnels with a terminal chamber in sandy banks or flat ground.

Where an approved project removes suitable nesting substrate, ask the project ecologist whether an artificial sandy bank or other artificial nest site is appropriate for the local soil, drainage, flooding and predator conditions.

Design and locate any artificial nest site to resemble a stable natural bank or suitable flat sandy ground. Keep it away from traffic, intense lighting, domestic animals and regular human access.

Obtain approval before constructing, modifying or monitoring an artificial breeding place.

  • Use a qualified person to design and supervise the feature.
  • Do not create a replacement site during active breeding if construction would disturb nearby birds.
  • Monitor whether birds inspect, excavate, occupy or abandon the feature and repair erosion or collapse promptly.

Rehabilitation actions: 3. Roosts, water and lighting

Retain mature trees and dense undergrowth used for non-breeding roosts where safe to do so. Replace lost roost vegetation with locally appropriate native trees and shrubs, recognising that replacement trees will take time to mature.

Protect nearby waterbodies, riparian vegetation, mudflats and other areas that support flying insects. Manage water levels and drainage so rehabilitation does not create unstable banks or strand fauna.

Use downward directed, low spill lighting near retained habitat, breeding places and roosts. Avoid bright lighting across flight paths and roost vegetation.

Control dust, sediment, chemical runoff and excessive noise during rehabilitation.

  • Keep revegetation and water management consistent with flood, erosion and safety requirements.
  • Inspect restored areas after storms and high flows.
  • Remove temporary lighting, fencing and access tracks when they are no longer required.

Rehabilitation actions: 4. Weeds, predators and long term monitoring

Control weeds without disturbing active tunnels, colonies or roosts. Use methods that avoid toxic exposure, soil collapse and loss of insect prey.

Manage foxes, cats, rats, cane toads and other introduced predators in accordance with the approved pest management plan and animal welfare requirements.

Monitor restored banks, artificial nest sites, roost vegetation, foraging habitat and nearby water through at least the relevant breeding period and after major rainfall or flooding.

Record tunnel creation, occupancy, breeding activity, fledglings, roost use, erosion, weeds, predators and any new disturbance.

  • Set monitoring triggers for tunnel collapse, repeated predation, weed cover, bank erosion, lighting impacts and loss of adult attendance.
  • Use monitoring results to repair, reprofile or expand rehabilitation areas where lawful and safe.
  • Keep long term monitoring records with the environmental management plan and include findings in the final rehabilitation report.

Sources