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Little Tern (Sternula albifrons)

The Little Tern is a small coastal seabird that nests on open sand near estuaries, beaches, islands and coastal lakes. On works sites, adults, eggs and chicks are easily disturbed or crushed, and colonies can hold a large share of the local breeding population. The species is Vulnerable under the EPBC Act, Endangered in New South Wales, Critically endangered in Victoria and a listed migratory species under the Bonn Convention, CAMBA, JAMBA and ROKAMBA.

Conservation status

Commonwealth, EPBC Act 1999: Vulnerable.

New South Wales, Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016: Endangered.

Victoria, Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988: Critically endangered.

Commonwealth, EPBC Act 1999: Listed migratory. Listed under the Bonn Convention, CAMBA, JAMBA and ROKAMBA. Listed migratory species are a matter of national environmental significance, so a significant impact needs referral.

Queensland, Nature Conservation Act 1992: Special least concern. A least concern bird covered by an international migratory bird agreement. Tampering with its breeding place needs a high risk species management program.

Western Australia, Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016: Specially protected (migratory).

Queensland, Nature Conservation Act 1992: Colonial breeder. Least concern in Queensland, but it breeds in colonies, so tampering with a breeding place needs a high risk species management program rather than the low risk program.

Migration and breeding season

Little Terns are present around much of the Australian coast, with breeding mainly in spring and summer. Timing varies between the northern and south eastern populations, and between local colonies. Some Asian birds are present in Australia while the Australian population is breeding.

Breeding mode: Usually colonial, although some pairs may nest alone. Colonies range from a few pairs to thousands of birds.

Clutch size: 1 to 3 eggs.

Incubation: 17 to 22 days, with both parents incubating.

Fledging: Young fledge at 17 to 19 days and remain dependent on suitable feeding and shelter areas nearby.

Nest and breeding place: A shallow scrape in open sand, usually above the high tide mark. Sites include beaches, sand spits, sand islands, estuarine islands, lake islands and artificial islands.

Age at maturity: Not recorded.

Breeding frequency: Not recorded. Pairs may move and attempt to re-nest after nesting failure.

Timing can shift between years and regions in response to weather, tides, flooding, food availability, breeding failure and movement between colony sites; check for active birds and nests before works even outside the main season.

  • Breeding in Australia, mainly south eastern population: Breeding generally occurs from September to March, with some Queensland information indicating September to December and other regional information indicating October to March.
  • Breeding overseas, Asian population: The Asian population breeds in Asia during the northern hemisphere spring and summer, generally May to September.
  • Southward arrival of Asian migrants: Asian migrants arrive on the Australian coast for their non breeding season, with September to November arrivals documented in New South Wales.
  • Non breeding presence in Australia, including Asian migrants: Non breeding birds are generally present from September to May, with the main summer presence extending across eastern and northern coastal Australia.
  • Northward departure and passage: Many eastern birds move north after the southern breeding season, during late summer and autumn, while some remain in Australia year round.
  • Highest clearing risk: Clearing, earthworks, vehicle access and visitor activity are most likely to harm eggs, chicks and active colonies from September to March, so works should be kept outside this period where practicable.

Identification: Appearance

The Little Tern is a very small, slender tern with narrow wings and a deeply forked tail. It is often seen flying low over estuaries before hovering briefly and plunging into the water.

Adults have pale grey upperparts, a white chest and underbelly, and a black cap. The outer wing edges are black and the tail is moderately long and deeply forked.

In breeding plumage, the bill and legs change from black to yellow. A black wedge extends from the bill towards the eye. Outside the breeding season, the black cap becomes a smaller black nape and the bill is black.

  • Length: 20 to 28 cm
  • Wingspan: 45 to 55 cm
  • Tail: 80 to 110 mm
  • Weight: about 50 g

Identification: Calls and similar species

The Little Tern is very vocal. Listen for repetitive, high pitched calls such as a sharp 'kik' or 'kip', and a rasping, two syllable 'gi-wick' or 'kid-ik'.

Fairy Terns are similar in size and shape. A breeding Little Tern has a sharper pointed white brow. Confirm difficult records with photographs or an experienced bird observer.

Identification: Field signs

The most useful site signs are birds repeatedly flying over, diving into, or defending a particular beach, sandbank or island. Adults may circle and call when people approach.

Look carefully for shallow scrapes, shell grit, small pebbles, seaweed, tiny tracks and camouflaged eggs. Eggs and chicks are extremely difficult to see against sand and shell.

  • Do not rely on droppings, whitewash, stains or odour to find a nesting site.
  • If adults repeatedly leave the ground when you approach, stop and withdraw.
  • A bird taking flight from a beach is a sign that the observer is too close.

Distribution: Australian range

Little Terns occur around much of the Australian coast, although records are uneven and the breeding distribution has contracted. The species has both Australian breeding birds and migrants from Asian populations.

The mapped Australian range includes New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia, Western Australia and the Northern Territory. The species is mainly coastal and is not generally found far inland.

In the south and east, the breeding range extends along the coast from Tasmania through Victoria and New South Wales to southern and northern Queensland. In Western Australia, records include Shark Bay and the north-west coast. South Australian records include the Gulf of St Vincent. Northern Australian coastal areas are also used.

  • New South Wales: mainly coastal, with important sites in the Manning estuary, Port Stephens, the Hunter region and coastal national parks.
  • Queensland: east coast sites, including South East Queensland and South Stradbroke Island at Jumpinpin.
  • Victoria and Tasmania: breeding and non-breeding records occur along the eastern and south-eastern coast.
  • South Australia and Western Australia: coastal records include the Gulf of St Vincent and Shark Bay, with a northern population extending through north-western Western Australia.
  • Northern Territory: coastal and estuarine habitat may be used, particularly by northern Australian or migrant birds.

Distribution: Overseas range

Asian Little Terns breed in eastern Asia and travel to Australia during their non-breeding season. Australian birds may also move north to Asia or the Pacific after breeding.

Distribution: What a local record means

A record near a project may represent a breeding bird, a migrant, a foraging bird or a roosting bird. Check the whole shoreline, nearby sandbanks and adjoining shallow water rather than treating the observation point as the full habitat.

Habitat: Sites to check

Little Terns are almost exclusively coastal. They favour sheltered or semi-sheltered shorelines with open sand, nearby shallow water and little tall vegetation.

Search beaches, estuary mouths, tidal channels, sand spits, sand islands, coastal lakes, bays, inlets, lagoons and offshore islands. Birds may occur several kilometres from the open sea in sheltered rivers, harbours and inlets.

  • Open beaches just above the high-tide mark
  • Exposed sandbanks and sand spits
  • Estuarine and lake islands
  • Dredge spoil or other artificial islands
  • Coastal wetlands with adjoining bare sand or shell grit

Habitat: Habitat structure

Preferred nesting areas are open, low and relatively flat. Bare sand or shell grit is preferred, with less than 20 percent vegetation cover generally considered suitable breeding habitat.

Small scattered clumps of native vegetation can provide shelter for chicks. Dense or tall vegetation can obstruct views, restrict adult movement, cover nesting substrate and make a site less suitable.

  • Check for recent sand movement and exposed shell grit.
  • Inspect areas above the high-tide line but below nearby dunes or banks.
  • Include nearby shallow water and intertidal areas in the habitat assessment.

Habitat: Site condition

A site can look suitable but have little breeding value if local fish are scarce, predators are common, flooding is frequent or people and vehicles regularly cross the beach. Assess the beach, water, access points and surrounding land together.

Foraging habitat: Foraging areas

Little Terns feed in shallow marine and estuarine water close to their nesting or roosting sites. Protecting the water beside a colony is as important as protecting the sand where birds nest.

Look for feeding birds over estuary mouths, tidal channels, lagoons, bays, surf beaches and shallow coastal waters. The species usually stays close to shore.

Colonies are generally within a couple of kilometres of their food source. A foraging range of about 2 to 4 km is used for Fairy and Little Terns.

  • Estuary channels and river mouths
  • Shallow water beside sand spits and islands
  • Surf zones on open beaches
  • Sheltered bays, lagoons and coastal lakes

Foraging habitat: Diet and feeding behaviour

The main prey is small fish. Birds also take insects and crustaceans such as prawns.

A feeding bird may fly slowly over the water, hover briefly, then plunge into the water. Repeated diving in one area can identify an important local feeding patch.

Foraging habitat: Works that can affect feeding

Damming, drainage changes, reclamation, dredging, loss of seagrass or mangroves, and contamination can reduce prey or alter access to feeding water. Avoid changes that remove shallow feeding habitat beside known breeding or roosting sites.

  • Keep sediment, fuel, concrete washout and other contaminants out of estuaries.
  • Maintain tidal connections where they support shallow feeding areas.
  • Consider disturbance and vessel activity across the nearby water, not only on the beach.

Breeding habitat: Nesting places

Little Terns nest on the ground in the open, usually above the high-tide mark. Breeding habitat is easy to damage because eggs and chicks blend into sand and shell grit.

Nests are shallow scrapes in sand. They may contain small shells, shell grit, pebbles, seaweed or a small amount of vegetation.

Typical breeding places include low dunes, sandy beaches near estuary mouths, sand spits, sand islands, estuarine islands, coastal lake islands and artificial islands.

  • Open, unvegetated or lightly vegetated sand
  • Ground above the high-tide mark
  • Sites close to shallow feeding water
  • Low islands and spits with wide views of approaching predators

Breeding habitat: Breeding biology

Both parents incubate the eggs and defend the nest. A clutch usually contains 1 to 3 eggs. Incubation lasts up to 22 days, and young fledge at about 17 to 19 days.

  • Breeding season: generally September or October to March
  • Eggs: well camouflaged and laid in a shallow scrape
  • Young: mobile before they can fly and may move away from the nest

Breeding habitat: Flooding and tides

Flooding, storms, king tides, strong winds and shifting sand can destroy nests. Before works, assess tide levels, storm exposure, flood paths and the elevation of the proposed work area.

  • Do not assume a site is unused because no nest is visible on one visit.
  • Check for adults defending or repeatedly returning to the same area.
  • Plan works outside the nesting period wherever practicable.

Breeding habitat: Site checks before works

A competent ecologist should inspect suitable open sand before access, clearing, earthworks or vehicle use. Walk slowly and scan ahead with binoculars where possible. Do not walk through suspected nesting areas to confirm the presence of eggs.

  • Record adults, fledglings, scrapes, eggs, chicks and defensive behaviour.
  • Check adjoining sandbanks, islands and beaches, not just the project footprint.
  • Stop work and obtain advice if nesting birds or chicks are found.

Sheltering habitat: Shelter features

Little Tern chicks leave the nest area and seek shelter while they are still unable to fly well. Shelter can be close to the nest, but it may also be spread across the wider beach or island.

Chicks may shelter among small clumps of native vegetation, driftwood, branches, beach-washed debris, kelp or other low objects. Native vegetation can form chick crèches.

  • Low, scattered vegetation
  • Driftwood and branches
  • Stable beach-washed material
  • Small hollows or windbreaks in the sand
  • Artificial shelters designed for the site

Sheltering habitat: How far chicks may move

Chicks can move up to 150 m from the nest to seek shelter. The area used by chicks may therefore be much larger than the visible nest scrape.

  • Inspect beyond the nest cluster for small chicks crouching or moving through cover.
  • Keep people, dogs and vehicles away from likely chick shelter areas.
  • Avoid removing all low vegetation during site preparation.

Sheltering habitat: Maternity roosts

Little Terns do not use mammal-style maternity roosts. For site management, treat nesting colonies, chick crèches and nearby high-tide roosts as connected habitat.

Colonies and breeding places: What a colony looks like

Little Terns generally breed in colonies, although some pairs nest alone when populations are low. A colony may be small and scattered or may contain thousands of birds, so a single site can represent a substantial part of the local breeding population.

A colony is usually a group of adults using an open sand area, with nests spread through bare or lightly vegetated ground. Adults may sit near scrapes, call loudly, circle intruders and repeatedly leave the ground when approached.

Colonies may be on beaches, sandbanks, spits, islands, estuary margins, coastal wetlands or artificial islands. Mixed colonies with Fairy Terns can occur.

Typical size: A few pairs to thousands of birds, with some solitary pairs

Nest density: Variable. Small, scattered colonies are common in eastern Australia, and precise spacing changes between sites and seasons

  • Repeated adult activity over one sand area
  • Several scrapes or chicks in open ground
  • Adults calling and defending the site
  • A nearby high-tide roost or chick shelter area

Colonies and breeding places: Site fidelity and movement

Sites may be reused between seasons, but Little Terns can move between sites during or between seasons. They may relocate after nesting failure, possibly to avoid predators or find safer conditions.

  • Do not assume a previously used site is vacant because birds are absent on one day.
  • Check nearby beaches, islands and sandbanks if a colony has failed or shifted.
  • Include alternative nesting and roosting areas in the site assessment.

Colonies and breeding places: Disturbance and buffers

Adults leave nests when people, dogs, vehicles or machinery approach. Eggs and chicks are then exposed to heat, predators, trampling and crushing. On beaches, people should stay at least 100 m from birds, and this distance is a useful minimum for field observations unless a site-specific assessment sets a larger exclusion.

  • Keep works, vehicles, stockpiles and access tracks outside active nesting areas.
  • Use visible refuge fencing and signs before works begin.
  • Keep dogs and recreational users out of the refuge area.
  • Use a spotter or ecologist to check the boundary before daily works.

Colonies and breeding places: Why colonies need special care

Colonial breeding means that one disturbance event can affect many nests at once. A vehicle route, flood, predator entry or poorly placed work compound can remove a large share of local breeding habitat.

  • Keep works outside the nesting period where practicable.
  • Avoid clearing, grading, lighting or driving across open sand during breeding.
  • Maintain nearby shallow feeding water and high-tide roosts.
  • In Queensland, obtain the required high risk species management program before tampering with a breeding place of this listed migratory or special least concern species.

Migration and seasonal presence: Seasonal presence in Australia

Little Terns in Australia include resident or partly migratory breeding birds and migrants from eastern Asia. The south-eastern population uses Australian coastal breeding sites in spring and summer, then moves north after breeding.

In New South Wales, birds usually arrive from September to November and are seen through to May. Only occasional birds are seen in winter.

The south-eastern breeding population generally nests from September or October to March along the coast from Tasmania through Victoria and New South Wales to Queensland.

  • Arrival and main presence: September to May in eastern Australia
  • Breeding: spring and summer, generally September or October to March
  • Departure or northward movement: late summer and autumn
  • Winter: occasional birds in southern areas, with many birds moving north or overseas

Migration and seasonal presence: Where birds breed

The south-eastern population breeds along the eastern and south-eastern coast, including Tasmania, New South Wales, Victoria and southern or northern Queensland. A northern population breeds from north-western Western Australia through northern Australia to northern Queensland.

Migration and seasonal presence: Non-breeding and passage birds

Asian birds breed in Asia during the northern hemisphere summer and travel to Australia to feed during their non-breeding season. These birds may occur with Australian breeding birds in coastal New South Wales, Victoria and southern Queensland.

For a works site, important habitat includes breeding sand, nearby roosts, shallow feeding water, estuary channels and coastal passage areas. A site can therefore remain important outside the local nesting period.

Migratory listing: Listed under the EPBC Act through the Bonn Convention, CAMBA, JAMBA and ROKAMBA

EPBC trigger: An action likely to have a significant impact on the species or its important habitat may require referral under the EPBC Act

Threats: People, vehicles and machinery

Most works site risks arise from disturbance, crushing, flooding, predators and loss of open coastal habitat. Manage the whole breeding and feeding area, not only visible nests.

Walkers, dogs, four-wheel drives, trail bikes, boats and construction equipment can flush adults, crush eggs or chicks, and damage scrapes. Repeated disturbance can cause adults to abandon a site.

  • Fence and sign refuge areas before access starts.
  • Use defined access routes outside nesting and chick shelter areas.
  • Keep staff, contractors and visitors away from active colonies.
  • Stop work if adults repeatedly flush or defend a particular area.

Threats: Predators and nest failure

Foxes, dogs, cats, ravens, Silver Gulls, Whimbrels and other predators can take eggs or chicks. Open colonies are also vulnerable when adults are flushed from nests.

  • Control foxes and other introduced predators under the approved site plan.
  • Do not leave food waste or other attractants near colonies.
  • Avoid creating predator access routes or perches beside nesting areas.

Threats: Flooding and coastal processes

High tides, storms, flooding, strong winds and shifting sand can inundate or bury nests. Rising sea levels and altered drainage can reduce the amount of suitable nesting ground.

  • Assess high tides, flood paths and storm exposure before placing temporary works.
  • Do not block tidal creeks or redirect water towards nesting sand.
  • Keep machinery and materials off areas that may be needed for birds to move after flooding.

Threats: Habitat loss and water quality

Coastal development, sand or mineral extraction, waste facilities, construction, reclamation and vegetation encroachment can remove nesting habitat. Dredging, pollution, oil, heavy metals and loss of seagrass, mangroves or saltmarsh can reduce feeding habitat.

Queensland approval context: Little Terns are special least concern animals under the relevant migratory listings. Tampering with a breeding place requires a high risk species management program

Conservation status: Commonwealth Vulnerable, New South Wales Endangered, Victoria Critically endangered

  • Retain open sand, shell grit and nearby shallow water where feasible.
  • Prevent sediment, fuel, chemicals and concrete washout entering estuaries.
  • Plan vegetation management so low chick shelter remains while dense encroachment is controlled.
  • Obtain project specific ecological and regulatory advice before disturbing a breeding place.

Survey methodology: 1. Desktop assessment

Little Terns are small, mobile and difficult to see on sand. Survey beaches, sand-spits, islands, estuary margins and nearby shallow waters before works, with extra care during the breeding season and the September to May period when birds are commonly present.

Map beaches, sandbanks, sand islands, estuary mouths, coastal lakes, inlets and nearby foraging waters. Include known or historical nesting sites, roosts, artificial islands and dredge-spoil islands.

Check threatened species records, local council information, reserve records, previous monitoring reports and recent aerial imagery. Treat historical records as a prompt for field checking, not as proof that a site is currently unused.

Assess the full habitat mosaic. A nesting colony may be within a couple of kilometres of shallow water used for feeding. Record nearby access tracks, boat ramps, dog areas, four-wheel-drive routes and sources of artificial lighting.

Typical nesting habitat: Open sand or shell grit above the high-tide mark, often on beaches, spits, islands and estuary margins.

Colony size: A few pairs to thousands of birds. Some pairs may nest alone.

  • Plan surveys for September to May, when Little Terns are commonly present in south-eastern Australia.
  • Give particular attention to spring and summer breeding activity, generally September to March, or October to March in the south-eastern population. In Queensland, breeding is commonly September to December.
  • Include both the proposed work area and nearby beaches, sand-spits, islands, roosts and foraging waters.

Survey methodology: 2. Field detection survey

Walk the accessible length of beaches, sandbanks and island margins from a position that does not approach birds. Use binoculars and a telescope where needed. Scan for adults, chicks, eggs, scrapes, shell grit, repeated flight paths and defensive behaviour.

Survey adjoining shallow water, estuary channels and surf zones for plunge-diving birds. Adult Little Terns often fly slowly, hover briefly and plunge into the water for small fish.

Use fixed vantage points for sensitive colonies and roosts. Avoid walking through nesting habitat. A bird that takes flight when approached indicates that the observer is too close.

Useful survey period: September to May for presence, with repeated checks during spring and summer breeding.

Relevant observation distance: At least 100 m from birds on the beach.

  • Keep at least 100 m from birds on a beach during field observations, unless a site-specific fauna authority approves a closer approach for safety or an essential inspection.
  • Survey close to high tide for roosting birds and close to low tide for foraging birds where tidal conditions allow. Surveys within two hours either side of the relevant tide are suitable for this purpose.
  • Repeat visits across the likely breeding period where habitat is suitable, records are historic, or weather, tides or access limit detection on the first visit.
  • Do not survey during heavy rain or strong winds when visibility and bird behaviour are affected. Record any weather or tide conditions that reduce survey effectiveness.

Survey methodology: 3. Recognise an active breeding place

Look for shallow scrapes in open sand above the high-tide mark. Scrapes may contain shell grit or small pieces of vegetation. Eggs are well camouflaged and chicks blend into the sand, so absence of an obvious nest does not show that a site is inactive.

Treat repeated adult presence, alarm calls, distraction displays, adults carrying food, adults defending an area, chicks, fledglings or adults flying repeatedly to one location as evidence of an active breeding place.

Check for a colony footprint rather than only individual nests. Little Terns may use scattered nests across a sandbank, beach, island or spit, and chicks may move up to 150 m from the nest to shelter.

Nest form: A shallow scrape in sand, sometimes lined with small shells or vegetation.

Chick movement: Chicks can move up to 150 m from the nest to seek shelter.

  • Record the colony or nesting area boundary with GPS and photographs taken from outside the exclusion area.
  • Mark the location of all visible nests, chicks, adults showing defensive behaviour and nearby shelter used by chicks.
  • Record the substrate, vegetation cover, tide level, water conditions, access points, predators, people, dogs, vehicles and other disturbance sources.
  • Do not search for eggs by walking through the colony or moving shell grit, vegetation or driftwood.

Survey methodology: 4. Record and report survey results

Record the date, start and finish times, tide, weather, survey route, observation points, survey conditions and personnel. Record survey effort even when no Little Terns are detected.

For each observation, record the number of adults, chicks and fledglings, behaviour, location, flight direction, feeding activity, roosting activity and any signs of breeding.

Map habitat used for nesting, roosting and feeding separately. Record disturbance responses, including birds flushing, alarm calling, mobbing or abandoning a nest temporarily.

  • Photograph habitat and disturbance sources from outside the nesting area. Do not photograph in a way that requires approaching nests.
  • Report suspected active breeding places promptly to the project ecologist and the relevant land manager or regulator.
  • Use conservative conclusions where detection was limited by tide, weather, vegetation, access or observer distance.

Before habitat disturbance: 1. Confirm approvals and legal pathways

Avoid Little Tern habitat wherever practicable. Resolve legal requirements, survey limits, exclusion areas and work timing before machinery or personnel enter a beach, sandbank, island, estuary margin or nearby coastal wetland.

Assess whether the action is likely to have a significant impact on the Little Tern as a vulnerable and migratory species under the EPBC Act. A referral may be required for actions that are likely to have a significant impact on listed migratory species or their important habitat.

Obtain all approvals, permits and written conditions before work starts. Check Commonwealth requirements, state threatened species requirements, marine or coastal approvals, reserve permissions, local government conditions and landholder permissions.

In Queensland, treat the Little Tern as a special least concern animal because it is covered by JAMBA, CAMBA, ROKAMBA and the Bonn Convention. Tampering with its breeding place requires a high risk species management program under the Nature Conservation framework, where that requirement applies.

  • Have the project ecologist confirm whether an EPBC referral or approval is needed.
  • Obtain relevant state permits or licences for disturbance, handling, relocation, monitoring or interference with wildlife and breeding places.
  • In Queensland, use the required high risk SMP pathway. Do not rely on the low risk SMP pathway for a Little Tern breeding place.
  • Keep approval documents, permit conditions, maps and contact details at the work site.

Before habitat disturbance: 2. Avoid colonies and plan timing

Redesign the work to retain beaches, sand-spits, sand islands, estuary margins, roosts and nearby shallow-water foraging areas. Retain open sand and shell-grit habitat, while managing dense vegetation that makes a site unsuitable for nesting.

Schedule ground disturbance, vehicle access, lighting installation and noisy construction outside the local breeding period wherever practicable. Remember that migrant and resident birds may be present from September to May, including outside the main nesting period.

Do not assume that a site is clear because adults are absent on one visit. Little Terns can move between sites after nesting failure and can re-nest during the same season.

  • Prefer works during the local non-breeding period, after the site has been checked and the ecologist confirms that no active breeding place is present.
  • Avoid works during high tides, storms and flood conditions that may concentrate birds on a remaining roost or nesting area.
  • Maintain access to nearby feeding waters. Do not block channels, estuary mouths or shallow-water areas used by adults.
  • Keep dogs, vehicles, temporary compounds, stockpiles and public access away from nesting and roosting habitat.

Before habitat disturbance: 3. Establish exclusion areas

Have the ecologist map an exclusion area around every active colony, nest, chick shelter area and associated roost. The boundary must include the area used by chicks, not only visible nests.

Use the 100 m observation distance as a minimum field approach distance on beaches. Set a larger work exclusion where birds flush, chicks move beyond the mapped colony, terrain funnels people towards nests, or noise and machinery would cause repeated disturbance.

Use fencing, signs, locked gates, spotter checks and vehicle controls. Place barriers outside the habitat boundary and avoid driving stakes, placing materials or creating shadows within the exclusion area.

Field approach distance: At least 100 m from birds on the beach.

  • Mark the exclusion area on construction drawings and daily work maps.
  • Inspect fencing and signs before each shift, after tides or storms, and after public access or animal entry.
  • Extend or relocate the boundary if adults flush, chicks move away from shelter, or new nests are found.
  • Do not remove fencing until the ecologist confirms that the breeding place is inactive and the approval conditions allow access.

Before habitat disturbance: 4. Induct the crew

Give all workers, contractors, visitors and vessel operators a short site induction before access. Show photographs of adults, chicks, eggs, scrapes, alarm behaviour and the exclusion boundary.

Explain that eggs are camouflaged and that a parent leaving a nest exposes eggs and chicks to heat, predators and trampling. A quiet beach does not mean that it is safe to enter.

Nominate the fauna spotter catcher, project ecologist and stop-work contact. Make the stop-work process clear to machine operators and supervisors.

  • Prohibit dogs, recreational access, four-wheel drives and trail bikes within the exclusion area.
  • Require workers to stay on marked routes and keep close to the water's edge only where the approved access plan allows it.
  • Tell workers not to touch eggs, chicks, adults, nests, shell grit, driftwood or shelter vegetation.
  • Record attendance and keep the induction register with the daily environmental records.

During habitat disturbance: 1. Use sequential clearing and controlled access

Treat any Little Tern colony, nest, chick, roost or injured bird as a stop-work matter until the fauna authority or ecologist has assessed it. Work must proceed in a controlled sequence, with people and machinery kept away from active breeding habitat.

Clear non-sensitive areas first and retain a buffer around beaches, sandbanks, islands, estuary margins and roosts until the final inspection is complete. Work from the approved access route and keep machinery facing away from the exclusion area where practicable.

Use a fauna spotter catcher or suitably authorised fauna observer to check the work area immediately before each shift, after breaks and whenever the work front changes.

Stop work during high tides, flooding, storms or strong winds if birds are concentrated in the work area or visibility is poor.

  • Proceed in small, defined work fronts.
  • Keep vehicles and plant on formed routes and away from sand above the high-tide mark unless access is approved.
  • Do not stockpile spoil, pipes, fencing, lighting equipment or waste on potential nesting substrate.
  • Do not use bright lights directed towards colonies, roosts or the water.

During habitat disturbance: 2. Stop work when birds or breeding places are found

The fauna spotter catcher has authority to stop work immediately if a Little Tern, active breeding place, colony, roost, chick shelter area or injured bird is found.

Withdraw people and machinery along the access route. Keep observers outside the exclusion area and prevent dogs, vehicles and members of the public from entering.

Contact the project ecologist and follow the approval, permit and SMP conditions. Do not restart until the boundary, method and timing have been reviewed and released in writing.

  • If an active breeding place is found, leave the nest, eggs and substrate undisturbed.
  • Map the find from outside the exclusion area and establish additional fencing and signs.
  • If a roost is found outside the breeding period, prevent flushing and assess whether the roost is being used by migrants or local birds.
  • Treat repeated flushing, alarm calling, mobbing or adults abandoning an area as evidence that the work is causing unacceptable disturbance.

During habitat disturbance: 3. Handle animals only when authorised

Do not catch, move, feed, restrain or release a Little Tern unless the person is authorised and the action is permitted by the relevant approval, permit or SMP.

Do not relocate eggs, chicks, nests or shelter material as a routine control. Relocation can separate chicks from parents and may cause adults to abandon a breeding attempt.

Keep unauthorised workers and members of the public away from any bird requiring assessment.

  • Use the approved wildlife carer or veterinarian pathway for an injured or sick bird.
  • Place an injured bird in a quiet, ventilated container only if an authorised person directs this and it can be done safely without entering an active colony.
  • Record the location, time, apparent injury, handling decision, person responsible and receiving carer or veterinarian.
  • Never release a bird into a different site without approval and ecological direction.

During habitat disturbance: 4. Keep incident records

Record every stop-work event, bird observation, nest, colony, roost, injury, vehicle intrusion and public access event. Include the response and the person who authorised the next step.

Use photographs and GPS locations taken from outside the exclusion area. Record the number and life stage of birds, behaviour, tide, weather, noise, machinery and duration of disturbance.

  • Notify the site supervisor, project ecologist and regulator where required by approval, permit or SMP conditions.
  • Update the site map and daily pre-start briefing after each incident.
  • Retain records with environmental inspection forms, permit reports and construction monitoring data.
  • Do not describe a colony as inactive solely because no adults are visible during one inspection.

After habitat disturbance: 1. Complete post-clearance checks

Complete a careful release check before removing controls or declaring the work area clear. Continue monitoring where construction has changed access, substrate, flood patterns, lighting or nearby feeding and roosting habitat.

Inspect the work front, access routes, stockpiles, fencing and adjacent habitat after clearing and after major construction changes. Look for nests, eggs, chicks, fledglings, adults carrying food and birds using new roosts.

Check that no nests, eggs, chicks, shelter vegetation or shell-grit habitat have been damaged. Inspect sand tracks and vehicle routes for tyre damage or signs of trampling.

Use the same cautious approach as the pre-clearance survey. Keep at least 100 m from birds on the beach and use binoculars or a telescope.

  • Complete a check at the end of each work shift in sensitive areas.
  • Complete an additional check after high tides, storms, flooding, strong winds or public access incidents.
  • Keep exclusion fencing in place until the ecologist confirms that the breeding place is inactive or the relevant approval allows its removal.
  • Record no-detection results as well as positive records.

After habitat disturbance: 2. Monitor outcomes

Monitor active or recently occupied sites through the breeding period when works occur nearby. Record adults, nests, chicks, fledglings, feeding activity, roost use and disturbance responses.

Where construction affects adjacent waters, monitor for changes in feeding activity, channel access, water quality, sediment movement and use of nearby roosts.

Use fixed photographs and mapped observation points so that changes can be compared between visits.

  • Continue checks through the local breeding period, generally September to March, where a breeding place has been near the work area.
  • Include the September to May migration period when assessing ongoing presence and roost use.
  • Compare results with the pre-work habitat map and monitoring records.
  • Escalate reduced feeding, repeated flushing, nest abandonment, injury or loss of chicks to the project ecologist.

After habitat disturbance: 3. Manage relocated or recovered animals

Obtain confirmation from the authorised wildlife carer or veterinarian before release. Release only at an approved location and under conditions that allow the bird to return to suitable habitat.

For chicks or fledglings, keep them with their parents wherever possible. Do not move them away from the colony unless an authorised wildlife professional directs the action.

Record the release location, date, time, condition, method, authority and follow-up requirement.

  • Do not release birds into an active colony without checking that the release will not cause disturbance or conflict.
  • Do not create a new breeding place as a substitute for moving a bird unless the approved management plan specifically provides for it.
  • Report mortality, failed release, repeated injury or abnormal behaviour through the project incident pathway.

After habitat disturbance: 4. Review incidents and close out the work

Hold a short environmental review after any nest disturbance, colony intrusion, injury, mortality, unauthorised access or permit breach. Identify the immediate cause and whether controls were adequate.

Update the induction, access plan, exclusion map, timing controls and monitoring frequency before work resumes.

Prepare the required regulator, land manager and approval-holder reports. Keep evidence of corrective actions and close-out decisions.

  • Review whether the work caused flushing or repeated disturbance at more than the approved level.
  • Check that all temporary fencing, signs, waste, lighting and materials have been removed from habitat when approved.
  • Retain monitoring data, photographs, GPS files, incident forms and permit correspondence for the project record.

Rehabilitation actions: 1. Restore nesting and roosting habitat

Rehabilitation should restore open coastal habitat, nearby feeding waters and safe access for birds. Design replacement habitat for Little Terns as low, open sandy or shell-grit areas near reliable shallow-water food, not as generic fauna structures.

Reinstate open sand or shell-grit surfaces above the high-tide mark where the approved rehabilitation design supports Little Tern use. Shape the site to remain open, low and visible to approaching birds and predators.

Remove construction rubble, waste, invasive plants and excessive vegetation encroachment. Retain small scattered native vegetation clumps where they provide chick shelter without closing the nesting area.

Restore nearby beaches, spits, islands, estuary margins and shallow-water access. Keep nesting and roosting areas close to suitable feeding habitat.

Preferred vegetation cover: Less than 20 percent. More than 10 to 20 percent is generally sub-optimal for small tern breeding habitat.

Foraging relationship: Colonies are generally within a couple of kilometres of food, with a stated foraging range of approximately 2 to 4 km.

  • Use local substrate that matches the surrounding beach or sandbank where practicable.
  • Keep dense or tall vegetation away from the main nesting surface.
  • Retain safe chick shelters such as suitable native vegetation, driftwood or beach-washed material where these do not create predator problems.
  • Prevent people, dogs, vehicles and stock from entering restored habitat during establishment.

Rehabilitation actions: 2. Consider artificial breeding sites carefully

Use artificial nest sites only where natural habitat cannot be retained and the design is supported by a site-specific ecological assessment. Little Terns may use dredge-spoil islands, artificial islands and created sandbanks.

Design for elevation above high and king tides, water-level fluctuations, open flat topography, suitable sand or shell-grit texture, local wind conditions, predator access, human disturbance and nearby small-fish availability.

Do not install nest boxes or bat boxes for Little Terns. They are ground-nesting seabirds and require open substrate, not cavities.

Example created sandbank dimensions: A documented created sandbank was 60 m long, 20 m wide and 1.5 m high. These dimensions are not a universal design standard.

  • Consult the relevant regulator, land manager and project ecologist before constructing an artificial island, sandbank or nest site.
  • Use artificial habitat only where long-term maintenance, predator control, public exclusion and suitable feeding waters can be secured.
  • Do not assume that a created site will be occupied. Monitor use and adapt the design if vegetation, erosion, flooding or disturbance makes it unsuitable.
  • Avoid artificial lighting directed at nesting, roosting or foraging habitat.

Rehabilitation actions: 3. Manage weeds, predators and access

Control invasive plants before they form dense cover over sand or shell grit. Use methods that do not disturb active nests, chicks or roosting birds.

Manage foxes, feral cats, dogs, ravens, silver gulls and other predators under an approved wildlife and pest management plan. Remove food waste and other attractants from construction areas.

Maintain fencing, signs and controlled access during establishment and when birds return.

  • Schedule weed and predator control outside the local nesting period wherever practicable.
  • Inspect for tracks, scat, digging, egg fragments, dead chicks and repeated predator activity.
  • Keep public paths, vehicle routes and dog access away from nesting and roosting habitat.
  • Use low-disturbance methods and stop control activities if birds begin flushing or defending nests.

Rehabilitation actions: 4. Protect water and reduce lighting

Maintain natural tidal exchange and shallow-water feeding areas. Avoid blocking channels, changing drainage, or releasing sediment, oil, heavy metals or other pollutants into estuaries and lagoons.

Prevent rehabilitation works from removing seagrass, mangroves or saltmarsh that support the food web, while retaining open sand needed for nesting.

Design lighting so that it is not visible from colonies, roosts, beaches or feeding waters.

  • Use spill controls, sediment barriers and clean equipment near estuaries and coastal wetlands.
  • Inspect drainage after rain, floods and high tides.
  • Direct lights downwards, shield them and switch them off when not required.
  • Investigate reduced feeding activity or changed bird distribution after water-management or lighting works.

Rehabilitation actions: 5. Monitor rehabilitation

Monitor the restored site for vegetation cover, erosion, flooding, predator activity, public access, roost use, nesting attempts and fledging. Include nearby feeding waters and access routes.

Use repeat visits during September to May, with more frequent checks during the local breeding period. Record both use and non-use of the site, along with weather and tide conditions.

Adjust substrate, vegetation, fencing, predator controls, lighting or water management when monitoring shows that the site is unsuitable or is causing disturbance.

  • Map each nest, colony, roost and chick shelter area from outside the exclusion boundary.
  • Record the number of adults, nests, chicks and fledglings, and any evidence of successful fledging.
  • Keep monitoring until the land manager and ecologist agree that the site is stable and management responsibilities are assigned.
  • Include long-term maintenance costs and responsibilities in the rehabilitation handover.

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