Little Galaxias (Galaxiella toourtkoourt)

Conservation status

Commonwealth, EPBC Act 1999: Vulnerable.

Victoria, Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988: Endangered.

Breeding season

The timing below reflects the assessment's possible late autumn to spring spawning period and its description of flood dispersal and annual recruitment. Exact timing may vary between sites and years.

Months are January to December. A value of 1 indicates that the activity may occur; the documents do not identify peak months.

• Breeding: Spawning is possible from late autumn through spring, approximately May to November, but the period may vary. Females lay eggs over several days and attach them to vegetation or hard surfaces.
• Young: Eggs hatch after two to three weeks and larvae are approximately 2 to 4 mm long. Young fish may therefore occur during and after spawning, with timing varying between sites and years.
• Flood dispersal: Dispersal can occur during floods, but no particular months are specified. Flood timing varies across the species' range.
• Seasonal refuge use: The species can survive extended seasonal drying by air breathing and using moisture-retaining vegetation cover and crayfish burrows. The timing and duration of drying vary between sites and years.
• Highest clearing risk: Clearing, dewatering and disturbance are most likely to affect eggs, larvae and recruitment during the possible late autumn to spring breeding period. Habitat can still be occupied or used as refuge outside this period.

Identification

The Little Galaxias is a tiny, elongated freshwater fish with no scales. It is most reliably identified from its body pattern, fin arrangement and rounded tail, with confirmation by an experienced freshwater fish ecologist where other small galaxiids occur.

The body has three black longitudinal stripes on each side. A single dorsal fin is set well back on the body and begins behind the anal fin. The rounded caudal fin has fleshy flanges extending towards, and almost joining, the dorsal and anal fins.

Identification: Sex and breeding colour

Males are generally smaller than females. During the spawning season, males develop a bright orange stripe between the middle and lower black stripes, while females have a silvery-white stripe in the same position.

Male length: 29 to 34 mm

Female length: 39 to 48 mm

Identification: Field detection and similar fish

The documents do not describe tracks, calls, nests, scats or other terrestrial field signs for this species. Adults, larvae and eggs require aquatic survey methods, and identification should account for the possibility of confusion with other small Galaxiella and galaxiid fishes, particularly where the former Dwarf Galaxias complex may occur.

• Record the waterbody, water depth, aquatic vegetation, substrate and flow conditions whenever a small galaxiid is captured or observed.
• Use an appropriately qualified freshwater fish ecologist for species confirmation and handling of threatened fish.

Distribution: Range

The Little Galaxias is an Australian endemic of coastal south-eastern mainland Australia. The supplied assessment describes a range extending across Victoria into the upper south-east of South Australia, but does not provide a complete list of bioregions or a national population estimate.

The known range extends from the upper Barwon River system near Barwon Downs in Victoria, westwards to the Cortina Lakes in the upper south-east of South Australia. The species is therefore relevant to projects in south-western and central Victoria and the upper south-east of South Australia, including areas associated with the Naracoorte Coastal Plain.

States identified in the documents: Victoria and South Australia

Range description: Upper Barwon River system near Barwon Downs to the Cortina Lakes in the upper south-east of South Australia

Typical elevation: Mean 100 m above sea level, usually 22 to 176 m

Distribution: Subpopulations and trend

The species is likely to occur as a metapopulation, made up of interconnected local subpopulations. Seasonal drying, severe floods and changing water levels can cause local loss and recolonisation, with dispersal during floods.

Estimated area of occupancy: 436 km², based on 2 by 2 km grids from accepted post-1970 Victorian records and other survey records

Projected locations: Two locations in the Victorian assessment

Population trend: A reduction of 30 to 50% was projected over the next 10 years in the Victorian assessment

• Do not treat an apparently unoccupied wetland or drain as having no conservation value without considering recent drying, flooding and seasonal detectability.
• Maintain links between suitable wetlands and small waterways where works could interrupt flood dispersal or recolonisation.

Habitat: Waterbodies and structure

Little Galaxias habitat is generally shallow, low-elevation freshwater with still or slow-moving water and dense aquatic cover. Sites can be natural wetlands or highly modified features such as artificial earthen drains.

The species occurs in swamps, wetlands, shallow lakes, billabongs, small creeks and artificial earthen drains. It is usually found in still water, low velocities or backwaters beside faster-flowing sections.

Mean maximum depth: 1.1 m

Typical depth: 0.5 to 2.0 m

Aquatic vegetation cover: Frequently dense, with a recorded mean cover of 17% and a typical range of 0 to 23%

Water temperature recorded at captures: 5.2 to 26.9 degrees C

pH recorded at captures: 5.3 to 9.3

Turbidity recorded at captures: 1 to 96 NTU

• Inspect shallow vegetated margins, backwaters, wetland pools, billabongs, small creeks and earthen drains before clearing, dewatering or changing drainage paths.
• Retain connected wet areas and avoid converting temporary or seasonally drying habitat to permanently inundated water where this would increase access for predators and competitors.

Habitat: Substrate and shading

Substrates are usually fine clay and silt, sometimes with sand or other coarser material. Deposits of coarse particulate organic matter may be present, and sites are partly shaded.

• Avoid unnecessary removal of emergent and submerged aquatic vegetation, fine sediment habitat and organic matter at occupied or potentially suitable sites.
• Manage sediment so that construction runoff does not smother shallow pools, drains or vegetated margins.

Foraging habitat: Feeding habitat

The supplied documents do not identify the Little Galaxias diet, prey species or foraging distance. They indicate that wetting and drying cycles can improve food resources and reduce competition and predation pressure.

The species feeds within the shallow freshwater habitats where it lives, including vegetated swamps, wetlands, shallow lakes, billabongs, small creeks and earthen drains. Specific feeding techniques, prey and daily foraging ranges are not provided.

• Retain shallow water, aquatic vegetation and organic matter that support aquatic food resources.
• Prevent pollution, excessive sediment and hydrological changes that reduce the productivity of temporary or seasonally variable habitat.

Foraging habitat: Implications for works

A local waterbody may support feeding fish even when numbers vary substantially between seasons or years. Survey timing and recent wetting or drying history should be recorded when assessing habitat.

• Survey connected habitat as well as the immediate construction footprint where dewatering, culverts, drains or flood pathways could affect access to feeding areas.

Breeding habitat: Breeding biology

Breeding occurs in freshwater and appears to be associated with aquatic vegetation or firm underwater surfaces to which eggs can be attached. Annual recruitment is important because adults are thought to die after spawning.

Females lay eggs singly over several days, usually attaching them to the underside of vegetation or to hard surfaces such as leaves or stones. After laying, two or three males fertilise the eggs and continue searching for ripe females.

Breeding season: Possibly late autumn to spring, with variable timing

Eggs per female: 65 to 250

Egg-laying rate: Approximately 10 eggs per day over several days

Hatching time: Two to three weeks

Larval length at hatching: Approximately 2 to 4 mm

Age at maturity: Not stated in the supplied documents

Lifespan: Not stated; adults are thought to die after spawning and the taxon is inferred to have a 1 year generation length

Breeding habitat: Breeding features

Suitable breeding habitat includes shallow freshwater with emergent or submerged vegetation and hard surfaces available below the waterline. Maintaining water through the spawning and hatching period supports recruitment.

• Avoid clearing, dewatering or disturbing submerged and emergent vegetation during the possible late autumn to spring spawning period.
• Inspect leaves, stems, stones and other submerged hard surfaces for attached eggs before disturbing occupied habitat.
• Keep suitable shallow pools and wetland connections available through spawning and larval development.

Sheltering habitat: Refuge features

Little Galaxias can survive periods of seasonal drying by using moisture-retaining features and by air breathing. Vegetation cover and crayfish burrows are specifically identified as refuges.

The species uses dense vegetation cover and crayfish burrows as moisture-retaining habitat during extended seasonal drying. The documents do not give dimensions for burrows or other shelter features.

• Retain aquatic and near-water vegetation cover during drainage, access and construction works.
• Do not fill, collapse or unnecessarily disturb crayfish burrows in or beside suitable wetland and creek habitat.
• Treat damp refuges and partially wet channels as potential habitat during dry periods, even if open water is limited.

Sheltering habitat: Drying and flooding

Seasonal and inter-annual changes in water level can substantially alter available habitat. Floods may allow dispersal between local subpopulations, while drying can provide benefits by reducing competition and predation, provided refuge habitat remains available.

• Plan dewatering and waterway crossings to retain refuge habitat and avoid isolating connected subpopulations.
• Record recent rainfall, flooding and drying conditions when interpreting survey results.

Threats: Habitat loss and hydrology change

The main risks are loss and fragmentation of shallow freshwater habitat, altered hydrology and invasive fish. These risks are particularly serious for a short-lived taxon that may depend on successful recruitment each year.

Wetland drainage, water extraction, dams, levees, artificial channels, underground pipes, channel incision and channel widening have reduced or degraded habitat. Permanently inundating seasonally variable habitat can increase predator and competitor dispersal and reduce habitat productivity.

• Avoid draining, filling or permanently inundating wetlands, billabongs, shallow pools and earthen drains.
• Prevent construction drainage from redirecting flows, isolating pools or removing seasonal drying cycles.
• Minimise channel widening, incision, piping and barriers that fragment habitat or interrupt flood dispersal.

Threats: Development and catchment pressures

Habitat loss and fragmentation associated with agricultural development, pollution, sedimentation and infrastructure are ongoing concerns. A warmer and drier climate is expected to reduce habitat extent and quality, with drought, fire-related sedimentation and increased drying adding pressure.

• Control sediment and polluted runoff from earthworks, roads and cleared areas before it reaches shallow fish habitat.
• Stage works to reduce the duration of dewatering and avoid isolating occupied pools.
• Assess indirect effects on connected wetlands and drains, not only direct vegetation removal.

Threats: Invasive fish and recruitment failure

Eastern Gambusia, Gambusia holbrooki, is identified as a major threat. It can reduce the extent and occupancy of Little Galaxias habitat through negative interactions. Because adults are thought to die after spawning, failure of recruitment in one year can cause severe local declines.

• Prevent the movement of Eastern Gambusia and other aquatic pests between waterways through water transfer, pumps, machinery, equipment and temporary storage.
• Use approved aquatic fauna hygiene and containment procedures during fish rescue, dewatering and waterway works.
• Treat fish presence and recruitment as potentially variable between years, rather than relying on a single negative survey.

Survey methodology: 1. Habitat assessment and site mapping

Survey the Little Galaxias in shallow freshwater habitats, including swamps, wetlands, shallow lakes, billabongs, small creeks and artificial earthen drains. Focus on still or slow-flowing water, backwaters, dense aquatic vegetation, fine clay or silt substrates and moist refuge features that may persist as surface water recedes.

Map all wetland, drain, creek, billabong and shallow lake habitat within and downstream of the proposed disturbance area.

Record water depth, flow, aquatic vegetation, shading, substrate, connected channels, isolated pools, crayfish burrows and areas that retain moisture during drying periods.

Prioritise sites with shallow water, usually 0.5 to 2.0 metres deep, low or no flow, partial shading and dense emergent or submerged vegetation.

Record water quality and site conditions during each visit, including temperature, pH, turbidity and dissolved oxygen where equipment is available.

Typical elevation: 22 to 176 metres above sea level, with a mean of 100 metres

Typical maximum depth: 0.5 to 2.0 metres, with a mean of 1.1 metres

Recorded water temperature: 5.2 to 26.9 degrees Celsius

Recorded pH: 5.3 to 9.3

Recorded turbidity: 1 to 96 NTU

• Treat habitats with no surface water as potential habitat if moist vegetation, crayfish burrows or other damp refuges remain.
• Inspect both the main channel and backwaters because the species can occur in low velocity areas beside faster flowing water.

Survey methodology: 2. Aquatic fish survey

Use a suitably licensed aquatic fauna ecologist to select and combine methods appropriate to water depth, flow, vegetation density and access.

Use fine mesh dip nets, bait traps, fyke or seine nets, electrofishing or other approved small fish methods where safe and authorised.

Sample open water, dense emergent and submerged vegetation, shallow margins, backwaters and damp refuge areas separately.

Survey during the likely spawning period, from late autumn to spring, where project timing allows, and repeat surveys where seasonal water levels are highly variable.

Record the number and type of gear, sampling duration, people involved, area or length sampled, water conditions and all non-detections.

Documented survey effort: The supplied assessment does not prescribe a standard number of nights, trap nights, transect length or sampling hours.

Life cycle: Completed in freshwater

Egg production: Approximately 65 to 250 eggs per female, laid singly over several days

• Do not wash equipment between sites without disinfecting it under the relevant state aquatic disease and hygiene requirements.
• Do not use electrofishing or trapping in drying pools unless the method is safe for people and fish and is covered by the required permit or authority.
• Treat one negative visit as insufficient evidence of absence where habitat is suitable, because abundance can vary substantially between seasons and years.

Survey methodology: 3. Timing and detection interpretation

Plan surveys when the target waterbody contains suitable shallow water and aquatic cover, while documenting any recent drying, flooding or reconnection.

Use repeated sampling where practicable because wetting and drying, floods, short lifespan and adults dying after spawning can produce large changes in local abundance.

Look for very small, scaleless fish with three black longitudinal stripes on each side, a rounded caudal fin and fleshy flanges extending towards the dorsal and anal fins.

Record fish length and photographs where handling is authorised, noting that males are generally 29 to 34 millimetres and females 39 to 48 millimetres.

Generation length: Inferred to be 1 year

Larval size at hatching: Approximately 2 to 4 millimetres

• Consider a site occupied if a confirmed record is made in connected or seasonally connected habitat, even if fish are not detected during a later visit.
• Have an experienced fish ecologist verify records because other small galaxiids may occur in the same region.

Survey methodology: Minimum effort and reporting

The supplied documents do not provide a species-specific survey guideline with mandatory effort levels, so set effort in the survey design and justify it against habitat extent, water availability, connectivity, season and detectability.

• Survey every suitable waterbody, wet depression, drain, backwater and connected habitat that could be affected directly or indirectly by the project.
• Record the exact survey date, time, weather, recent rainfall, water level, water quality, method, effort, location and result for each sampling unit.
• Submit confirmed records, including coordinates and photographs or voucher information where permitted, to the relevant state wildlife or biodiversity database.
• Report suspected nationally significant records and any proposed disturbance to the project approvals team for assessment under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.
• Retain raw field sheets, track logs, photographs, equipment records, permits and chain of custody information for specimens or samples.

Before habitat disturbance: Avoid and minimise habitat loss

Avoid disturbing occupied and seasonally suitable freshwater habitat wherever practicable. The species depends on interconnected subpopulations, so planning must protect both wet habitat and the hydrological links that allow recolonisation.

Redesign the project to retain shallow wetlands, small creeks, billabongs, artificial drains, backwaters, dense aquatic vegetation and damp refuge areas.

Retain natural wetting and drying cycles where they support habitat productivity and do not permanently inundate normally seasonal habitat.

Avoid drainage, filling, channel widening, channel incision, levee construction, unnecessary water extraction and new barriers to movement.

Protect crayfish burrows, moist vegetation and organic matter deposits that may provide refuge during extended seasonal drying.

Major threats: Habitat loss and fragmentation, drought, climate change and invasive fish, particularly Eastern Gambusia

• Maintain connected habitat between retained pools, wetlands and drains unless an approved aquatic fauna plan provides another arrangement.
• Prevent altered drainage from permanently inundating seasonal habitat or increasing access for predators and competitors.
• Keep sediment, pollutants and construction runoff out of shallow water and downstream habitat.

Before habitat disturbance: Approvals and project planning

Check the current national and state conservation status before works begin, because the species is identified in the project brief as nationally Vulnerable and is assessed as proposed Endangered in Victoria.

Refer the project for approval advice where clearing, drainage changes, water extraction, crossings, dewatering or indirect impacts could affect occupied or suitable habitat.

Obtain all state permits for fish capture, handling, electrofishing, relocation, specimen collection and work in waterways before survey or construction.

Prepare a species-specific aquatic fauna management plan covering survey results, exclusion areas, water controls, handling authority, rescue arrangements and reporting.

• Include the Little Galaxias in the project's environmental risk register and hold points.
• Obtain advice from the relevant state agency before treating a population as absent or before moving fish between waterbodies.
• Avoid scheduling dewatering, channel isolation or vegetation removal during late autumn to spring where the work can be deferred.

Before habitat disturbance: Pre-clearance preparation

Complete a pre-clearance aquatic fauna survey immediately before disturbance and update the habitat map if water levels, connectivity or vegetation have changed.

Mark no-go areas around retained water, wet depressions, dense aquatic vegetation, damp refuge features, drains and connecting flow paths.

Install exclusion fencing or equivalent controls where they can prevent machinery, sediment, people or stock from entering retained habitat without blocking required fish movement.

Brief all workers on the species, mapped exclusion areas, stop-work triggers, hygiene controls and the fauna spotter catcher's authority.

• Stage works so that occupied habitat is isolated only for the shortest practicable period.
• Place clean access routes, refuelling areas, spoil stockpiles and concrete washout well away from water and overland flow paths.
• Prepare clean holding equipment, aerated containers, water quality equipment and an approved release or care plan before any aquatic rescue.

During habitat disturbance: Daily site controls

Keep the fauna spotter catcher involved whenever works may enter or alter aquatic habitat. Machinery controls, water management and rapid response are more effective when the spotter can see the active work area and can stop the activity.

Inspect exclusion fencing, silt controls, pumps, diversion structures and retained habitat before work starts each day.

Keep machinery, spoil, fuels, chemicals and wash water out of wetlands, drains, creeks, billabongs and flow paths.

Use clean machinery and equipment between catchments or sites to reduce transfer of disease, sediment, weeds and invasive fish.

Maintain natural or approved environmental flows and prevent sudden changes in depth, velocity, turbidity, temperature or dissolved oxygen.

• Stop work if water escapes the approved work area, sediment enters retained habitat, a pump draws down an occupied pool, or a control fence fails.
• Do not discharge turbid, contaminated or deoxygenated water to retained habitat.
• Keep an emergency spill kit and an incident contact list at the active work front.

During habitat disturbance: Spotter catcher and machinery interface

Position the fauna spotter catcher where the person can observe the machinery, the water edge, isolated pools, vegetation removal and any dewatering activity.

Give the spotter catcher authority to call an immediate stop and require the operator to make the plant safe before approaching a fish or aquatic habitat.

Move machinery only after the spotter confirms that the next work area has been checked and that the approved aquatic fauna controls remain effective.

Use a licensed aquatic fauna ecologist or other authorised person for capture, identification, handling and relocation.

• Do not allow untrained workers to catch, handle, retain or release a Little Galaxias.
• Keep fish handling time as short as possible and use clean water from the source habitat with suitable temperature and oxygen conditions.
• Follow the approved state permit and fauna management plan for any relocation, including the receiving habitat and release records.

During habitat disturbance: Finds, injuries and stop-work response

Stop the relevant activity if a Little Galaxias is found in the work area, if fish are stranded during dewatering, or if a retained pool is about to be isolated or filled.

Secure the location, prevent further entry and contact the authorised aquatic fauna ecologist and the project environmental officer.

Relocate fish only when authorised and only to nearby retained habitat approved for that purpose, with water quality and temperature checked before release.

Place injured fish in appropriate clean, oxygenated holding water and arrange assessment by a permitted wildlife rehabilitator, aquatic veterinarian or relevant state authority.

Record the species identification, number, condition, exact location, time, work activity, handling method, release location and names of authorised personnel.

• Do not release fish into an unapproved waterbody or move them across catchments.
• Do not resume work until the environmental officer confirms that the cause of the find or incident has been controlled.
• Escalate repeated finds, fish deaths, stranding, pollution, major sediment release or loss of connectivity under the project's incident procedure and approval conditions.

After habitat disturbance: Post-clearance checks

Post-work checks must confirm that retained habitat remains functional and that construction has not changed water movement, habitat quality or access for invasive fish and predators.

Inspect the work area and retained habitat after clearing, dewatering, crossing construction and removal of temporary controls.

Check for stranded fish, isolated pools, blocked flow paths, excessive sediment, channel incision, new erosion, pollution and damage to aquatic vegetation.

Confirm that temporary crossings, pumps, diversion structures, spoil and exclusion fencing have been removed or retained as required by the management plan.

Complete follow-up aquatic surveys where the project affected occupied habitat, changed hydrology or caused a fish rescue.

• Reinstate approved flows before removing controls that protect retained habitat.
• Keep sediment and pollution controls in place until disturbed ground is stable and runoff no longer threatens the waterway.
• Repair failed fencing, drainage controls or wetland edges as soon as they are identified.

After habitat disturbance: Monitoring and reporting

Monitor retained and rehabilitated habitat through wetting and drying cycles, with additional checks after major rainfall, drought, fire or construction incidents.

Compare water depth, aquatic vegetation, connectivity, turbidity and fish detections with the pre-work baseline.

Report confirmed records, mortalities, rescues, incidents, permit outcomes and monitoring results to the relevant state database and approval agencies.

Apply any required offset, restoration or compensatory measure where residual impacts remain after avoidance and mitigation.

Population response concern: Successful recruitment is needed each year because the taxon is thought to be annual and adults may die after spawning

• Keep monitoring records with dates, locations, methods, effort, weather, water conditions and raw detection data.
• Review controls if monitoring shows declining habitat quality, failed recruitment, increasing isolation or increased occurrence of Eastern Gambusia.
• Do not close the fauna management action until all approval conditions and rehabilitation success measures have been met.

Rehabilitation actions: Wetland and waterway reinstatement

Rehabilitation should restore shallow, seasonally variable freshwater habitat rather than create a permanently deep or permanently connected waterbody. The aim is to support aquatic cover, moisture refuges, suitable water quality and movement between subpopulations.

Regrade disturbed margins to create shallow wetland areas and low velocity backwaters within the site's approved hydrological design.

Re-establish seasonal wetting and drying where that regime formed part of the pre-disturbance habitat.

Restore natural drainage paths and connectivity without creating permanent inundation or excessive connectivity that allows predators and competitors to spread.

Use clean, local substrate and retain or replace fine clay, silt and coarse organic matter where these were present before disturbance.

Typical habitat depth: 0.5 to 2.0 metres, with shallow margins and low or still water velocities

Typical aquatic vegetation cover: Mean recorded cover of 17 percent, with a typical range of 0 to 23 percent

• Replant locally appropriate emergent and submerged aquatic vegetation in shallow margins and backwaters.
• Do not introduce fish, aquatic plants or water from another catchment during rehabilitation.
• Design crossings and outlets to maintain approved fish passage and avoid sudden changes in water level or velocity.

Rehabilitation actions: Refuge, weed and predator management

Retain or reinstate damp vegetation cover, crayfish burrows and other moisture-retaining features that can provide refuge as surface water dries.

Control weeds without allowing herbicide, sediment or contaminated runoff to enter occupied or rehabilitated water.

Monitor for Eastern Gambusia and other invasive fish and implement the approved state control response if they are detected.

Manage erosion, sediment delivery and excessive shading or clearing so that dense aquatic cover can re-establish.

Documented invasive fish threat: Eastern Gambusia, Gambusia holbrooki

• Do not fill or compact crayfish burrows and moist refuge areas during final grading.
• Use hygiene controls during weed and pest work to avoid transferring invasive fish, aquatic weeds or pathogens.
• Coordinate fire planning with wetland protection so that fire, post-fire sediment and loss of vegetation cover do not further reduce habitat quality.

Rehabilitation actions: Success measures and monitoring

Set rehabilitation success measures for seasonal water levels, shallow habitat extent, aquatic vegetation, water quality, connectivity and absence of construction impacts.

Survey rehabilitated habitat during suitable wet periods and again through a drying phase where the project permits.

Compare fish detections and habitat condition with pre-disturbance results, while allowing for substantial seasonal and inter-annual variation in abundance.

Continue management until the site supports suitable shallow freshwater habitat and the required approval outcomes have been demonstrated.

Expected population structure: A metapopulation of interconnected subpopulations, with local extinction and recolonisation linked to wetting, drying and flood dispersal

• Record survey method, effort, water conditions, habitat measurements, fish detections, invasive fish detections and maintenance actions.
• Investigate a failure to detect fish in context, because local extinction and recolonisation may occur within a metapopulation structure.
• Submit rehabilitation monitoring records and confirmed species records to the relevant state biodiversity database.

Sources

• DRAFT Conservation Advice for the Karst Springs and Associated Alkaline Fens of the Naracoorte Coastal Plain Bioregion - Draft Conservation Advice, Australian Government DCCEEW: https://www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/env/consultations/d9132abc-bcbc-43bf-a29c-48848b10e076/files/karst-springs-draft-conservation-advice.pdf
• [PDF] Threatened Species Assessment Galaxiella toourtkoourt, bio-prd-naturekit-public-data.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com: https://bio-prd-naturekit-public-data.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/species_assessments/Galaxiella_toourtkoourt_903034.pdf