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Little Eagle (Hieraaetus morphnoides)

The Little Eagle is a small Australian eagle of open woodland, open forest, grassland and riparian mosaics. It breeds in mature living trees and may forage many kilometres from the nest, so clearing can affect both nest sites and less obvious feeding, roosting and movement areas. It is listed as Vulnerable in New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and the Australian Capital Territory, but is not listed under the EPBC Act.

Conservation status

New South Wales, Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016: Vulnerable.

Victoria, Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988: Vulnerable.

South Australia, National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972: Vulnerable.

Australian Capital Territory, Nature Conservation Act 2014: Vulnerable.

Breeding season

Timing varies with climate. The pattern below describes the temperate south-eastern cycle, with a note for tropical populations that breed through the dry season.

The season table is a general field-planning guide. Confirm local timing from regional records, nest monitoring and current project surveys, especially in tropical, arid and high-elevation areas.

  • Breeding and laying: Nest building starts in late winter. In the ACT and temperate south-east, two eggs are usually laid in late August to early September.
  • Young in nest: Incubation lasts about 37 days. Chicks hatch from about October and remain in the nest for about eight weeks before fledging.
  • Dependent young: Post-fledging dependence can extend the breeding cycle to five or six months. Fledglings need nearby open woodland for movement and learning to forage.
  • Movement and dispersal: Movement varies between individuals. Some high-elevation south-eastern birds migrate up to 3,000 km to tropical northern Australia, while others are resident or move locally. First-year birds can disperse across the continent.
  • Highest clearing risk: Clearing and major disturbance are most likely to harm the species from late winter through summer in the temperate south-east, when adults are nesting, raising young and supporting recently fledged birds. Tropical timing shifts with the dry-season laying period.

Identification

The Little Eagle is a stocky, broad-headed eagle with fully feathered legs and a square-cut, barred tail. It is often detected by its call or soaring flight rather than by a close view.

Adults have dark brown upperparts, usually with black streaking on the head and neck, and a sandy to pale underbody in the common light form. Dark birds are darker brown or rich rufous below. Juveniles are generally more strongly rufous and have less contrasting patterns.

The species has broad wings and a relatively short, square-ended tail with barring. It often soars high above woodland, perches in an exposed tree, or makes a fast, falcon-like dive towards prey on the ground, in shrubs or in the canopy.

Body length: 450 to 550 mm

Wingspan: About 1.2 m

Weight: 500 to 1,200 g

Identification: Similar raptors and sex differences

The Little Eagle is smaller and less powerful-looking than the Wedge-tailed Eagle, with a square-cut barred tail rather than the wedge-shaped tail of that species. The Wedge-tailed Eagle is also a significant competitor and may displace Little Eagles from territories, nests or food.

The sexes have similar plumage. Females are larger and usually darker, while males have proportionally longer wings and weigh substantially less. Juvenile plumage can become adult-like during the first post-juvenile moult towards the end of the first year, so colour alone is not a reliable age indicator.

Identification: Field signs

The species has a loud call and may advertise a nesting territory by soaring, undulating flight displays, conspicuous perching and calling. No species-specific tracks, scats, sloughs or eyeshine are described in the supplied sources.

Look for a substantial stick nest lined with leaves in a mature living tree. Little Eagles may use a different nest in successive years, including an old nest built by another bird such as a raven. Several alternate nests may occur within a breeding territory.

  • Record repeated sightings of a small eagle using the same mature trees, ridgelines, woodland edges or watercourse corridors.
  • Inspect mature trees in open woodland and along tree-lined watercourses for large stick nests, fresh lining material, whitewash, prey remains and repeated adult activity.
  • Treat an apparently unused nest as potentially important because pairs may alternate between nests in different years.

Distribution: National range

The Little Eagle is endemic to mainland Australia and occurs across most of the continent. It is widespread nationally, but has undergone marked declines in south-eastern Australia, where breeding territories and reporting rates have fallen.

The species occurs throughout most of mainland Australia and breeds across much of its mainland range. It is scarce or absent in the most arid treeless areas and avoids the most rugged, densely and continuously forested areas.

The supplied sources do not provide a complete state by state distribution map or a national population estimate. State conservation listings identify the species as Vulnerable in NSW, Victoria, South Australia and the ACT.

National range: Most of mainland Australia

Elevation: Breeds to about 1,300 m

EPBC status: Not listed

State and territory status supplied: Vulnerable in NSW, Victoria, South Australia and the ACT

  • Expect the species in suitable open woodland, open forest, grassland and riparian mosaics across mainland Australia.
  • Do not assume that a site outside the listed south-eastern jurisdictions is of low importance, because the species remains widespread and may use large areas around breeding sites.

Distribution: South-eastern strongholds and trend

The species appears most abundant in areas with varied terrain and a mixture of tree cover and open ground in south-eastern Australia. In the ACT, known breeding concentrations have included the Murrumbidgee and Molonglo river corridors, with the lower Molonglo Valley identified as a recent stronghold.

The South Eastern Highlands bioregion has experienced a regional decline. In national atlas comparisons, the species was recorded in 65% of one degree grid cells in 1977 to 1981 and 59% in 1998 to 2002. Breeding records fell from 11% to 5% of cells, and the national reporting rate declined by 14%.

NSW reporting rate decline: 39% over 20 years and 50% over 30 years, according to the ACT Action Plan

ACT breeding territories: Reported active territories declined from 13 in 1990 to 1992 to one in 2011 and one in 2012

ACT records: Only two or three known breeding pairs were reported around 2010 to 2015, depending on the survey year and source

  • The ACT breeding range has been concentrated in the lower northern parts of the Territory, particularly around the Murrumbidgee and Molonglo corridors.
  • Movement between NSW and the ACT is likely, so local site assessments should consider habitat and threats across the regional boundary.

Habitat: Habitat types

Little Eagles use open habitats for hunting and mature trees for perching, roosting and nesting. The most suitable sites combine woodland or open forest with grassland, farmland or riparian vegetation.

Typical habitat includes open woodland, open forest, grassland, wooded farmland, forest margins and riparian woodland. In the ACT, the preferred combination is lowland woodland, grassland and riparian areas occurring together as a mosaic.

The species usually avoids large areas of dense forest. It is also scarce or absent from the most arid areas where trees and open hunting habitat are lacking.

  • Retain connected or functionally linked patches of open woodland, grassland and riparian vegetation.
  • Assess habitat beyond the nest tree because breeding and foraging areas may be several kilometres apart.
  • Include rural land, reserves, river corridors and woodland edges in habitat assessments, not only formally protected areas.

Habitat: Structural features

Important structural features include mature living trees for nests and roosts, exposed perches for scanning, open ground or low vegetation for hunting, and movement corridors between woodland patches.

A GPS study near West Belconnen recorded most fixes in open woodland, followed by grassland. The tracked male also used rural and reserve land, conservation areas, CSIRO land and parts of a proposed development area.

Tracked ACT habitat use: 57% of GPS fixes in open woodland and 22% in grassland

Tracked ACT sector use: 63% of fixes in rural and reserve areas, 13% in a conservation zone, 8% in the development area and 4% in urban areas

Elevation limit: Breeding recorded to about 1,300 m

  • Retain mature trees, including isolated trees and trees along watercourses, even where the surrounding ground layer is open.
  • Retain open woodland corridors between breeding areas and seasonal or alternative foraging and roosting areas.
  • Map both daytime flight areas and repeated roost locations during pre-clearing surveys.

Foraging habitat: Diet and hunting

The Little Eagle is a generalist predator that hunts across open woodland, grassland, woodland edges and nearby rural areas. It searches from high in the air or from an exposed perch, then makes a fast strike at prey.

Recorded prey includes juvenile rabbits, birds such as parrots and small passerines, reptiles, large skinks, small monitor lizards and large flying insects such as grasshoppers, Christmas beetles and cicadas. Prey can be taken on the ground, from trees and shrubs, or in the air.

Diet varies geographically. In northern Australia it contains a higher proportion of birds, in arid areas it is mostly lizards, and in southern Australia juvenile rabbits are common. Near Canberra, rabbits form more than half of the diet in the studies cited by the supplied sources.

Typical prey size: Up to rabbits and juvenile hares, birds up to duck and crow size, and large skinks or small monitor lizards

Search height: The ACT Action Plan records soaring to about 500 m

Diet near Canberra: Mostly rabbits, with birds including rosellas, magpie-larks and starlings also recorded

  • Search open woodland, grassland, shrubland, woodland edges and riparian margins for active hunting areas.
  • Record exposed perches, repeated swooping points, prey remains and areas with abundant rabbits, small birds or reptiles.
  • Treat flight over urban or cleared land cautiously, because the bird may be travelling between separated foraging and roosting areas rather than feeding there.

Foraging habitat: Foraging range

Breeding birds may travel many kilometres from a nest to search for food. A tracked ACT male had an estimated 90 to 95% home range of about 47 to 67 km² over three months, with daily travel averaging 9.87 km and reaching 27.97 km on the longest recorded day.

The same bird used open woodland and grassland and travelled between sites separated by up to about 20 km. Its core flying areas included Strathnairn, the conservation zone, the eastern part of the development area and rural areas around Gooromon Ponds.

Breeding male home range in south-eastern Australia: About 40 to 80 km²

ACT GPS study home range: 47.52 to 66.84 km² at the 90 to 95% contour levels

Average daily distance in ACT study: 9.87 km

  • Assess the whole likely home range around a nest, including off-site woodland, grassland, rural land and riparian corridors.
  • Avoid treating a low number of observations within a proposed clearing area as evidence that the area is unimportant, because use varied between weeks and seasons.
  • Maintain movement corridors containing mature trees between breeding areas and foraging or roosting areas.

Breeding habitat: Breeding biology

Little Eagles are tree-nesting raptors. They need a mature nest tree, nearby open hunting habitat and enough undisturbed area for territorial and parental activity.

Pairs usually build or repair one or two stick nests at the start of the breeding season, then settle on one. They may alternate between nests in different years. Both adults share brooding and feeding, although the female performs most of the care of small chicks.

Breeding success depends on food supply and weather. Some pairs do not lay or fail in drought years. Successful pairs generally raise one young and rarely two.

Temperate breeding season: Nest building starts in late winter, with laying in early spring and fledging in early summer

Tropical breeding season: Laying occurs during the dry season, from about austral autumn to early spring

Clutch size: Usually two eggs, with one or two young fledged

Incubation: About 37 days

Fledging: About eight weeks after hatching

Post-fledging dependence: The full breeding and dependence cycle may extend for five to six months

Age at maturity: Not established in the supplied sources

Lifespan: Not established in the supplied sources

Breeding habitat: Nest habitat

Nests are usually placed in mature living trees in open woodland, often on hillsides or along tree-lined watercourses. Nesting territories are defended and advertised by soaring displays, conspicuous perching and calling.

A nest buffer alone may not protect a breeding pair. The associated foraging area can be several kilometres away, and movement between nesting, feeding and roosting areas may cross proposed construction areas or roads.

  • Retain the nest tree and other mature trees that could provide alternate nests or roosts.
  • Survey open woodland, riparian corridors and hillsides for active and old stick nests before clearing.
  • Schedule noisy or ground-disturbing work outside the local breeding and dependent-young period where practicable, and obtain project-specific advice where an active nest is present.
  • Map the breeding territory and associated foraging areas rather than applying protection only to the visible nest tree.

Sheltering habitat: Roosts and perches

Shelter is provided mainly by mature trees used for nesting, daytime perching and night roosting. Little Eagles may roost repeatedly in the same trees and use different trees across a large home range.

Mature trees in open woodland, woodland edges, rural areas and riparian corridors provide roosts and elevated lookouts. In the ACT GPS study, repeated fixes identified roost locations at Strathnairn, Dunlop Reserve, Gooromon Ponds and CSIRO land.

The tracked bird rarely roosted in urban areas. Urban areas were used mainly during flight, while mature trees in open woodland and rural areas supported repeated roosting.

Roosting behaviour in ACT study: 73% of 918 usable GPS fixes were classified as roosting

Recorded roost locations: Strathnairn, Dunlop Reserve, Gooromon Ponds and CSIRO land

Nest and roost structure: Mature living trees, usually in open woodland or beside tree-lined watercourses

  • Retain mature live trees within and beside proposed clearing areas, including trees that are not nest trees.
  • Inspect repeated perch and roost locations before removing trees or changing access, lighting or noise conditions.
  • Keep roost trees connected to nearby open woodland and grassland so birds can move between shelter and feeding areas.

Sheltering habitat: Nests and alternate shelter

The species builds substantial stick nests lined with leaves and may reuse or modify nests built by ravens or other birds. Pairs may maintain and repair one or two nests and alternate between them in different years.

No den, burrow, hollow, ground-cover refuge or species-specific shelter measurement is described in the supplied sources.

  • Treat old or inactive stick nests as potential future breeding or roost sites.
  • Retain mature trees surrounding known nests and along movement routes, because alternate nest use and seasonal movements can change the trees used by a pair.
  • Record nest condition, tree species, tree health, surrounding vegetation and evidence of recent adult activity during inspections.

Threats: Clearing and fragmentation

Habitat loss is the main documented threat, especially the removal of lowland woodland, grassland and riparian mosaics near expanding urban areas. Construction effects can extend well beyond a nest tree because the species uses large home ranges and movement corridors.

Clearing of mature woodland, open forest, grassland and riparian vegetation can remove nests, roosts, perches, prey habitat and travel routes. In the ACT, about 80% of lowland woodland present around European settlement has been lost.

Urban expansion can displace breeding pairs from otherwise suitable habitat. Fragmentation can separate nest trees from feeding areas and force birds to cross urban areas or roads. A small reserve may retain a nest tree but still be too small to support a breeding pair.

ACT lowland woodland loss: Approximately 80% since European settlement

Example home range: About 47 to 67 km² for one ACT male over three months

  • Avoid clearing known nest trees, alternate nest trees, mature roost trees and woodland corridors.
  • Map habitat used for foraging and movement several kilometres from the nest.
  • Retain connected open woodland and grassland between breeding areas and seasonal foraging or roosting areas.
  • Use pre-clearing surveys and targeted nest searches before removing mature trees or riparian vegetation.

Threats: Disturbance and construction

Human activity near suitable habitat may cause Little Eagles to retreat. Noise, earthworks, vegetation removal and repeated vehicle movements near a nest can affect territorial behaviour, incubation, chick care and fledgling use of nearby woodland.

A development site may be used only during some weeks or seasons. In the West Belconnen study, use of the development area was low overall but reached about 40% of sector fixes in one week during a shift in the bird's home range.

  • Identify active and alternate nests before works start and establish project-specific exclusion and disturbance controls with the relevant wildlife authority.
  • Monitor breeding activity before and during works where a nest occurs within or near the project area.
  • Keep mature trees and open woodland corridors available for fledglings learning to fly and forage.
  • Do not interpret occasional or seasonal use as negligible use without considering the full monitoring period.

Threats: Roads, poisoning and other hazards

The species can be injured or killed by vehicle collisions. Other recorded or suspected hazards include barbed-wire fences, windfarm turbines, accidental poisoning and traps intended for introduced carnivores.

Secondary poisoning from rabbit control products such as Pindone has been identified as a possible risk when Little Eagles eat poisoned rabbits or carcasses. The supplied sources do not establish a disease threat for this species.

Documented collision hazards: Vehicles and, less frequently, barbed-wire fences and windfarm turbines

Potential chemical hazard: Secondary poisoning from Pindone and other pest-control chemicals

  • Assess vehicle collision risk where roads cross regular flight paths, woodland corridors or areas with abundant prey.
  • Remove or manage visible carcasses and avoid placing toxic baits where Little Eagles are likely to hunt or roost.
  • Keep baiting programs under ecological review and consider the bird's large home range, not only the distance to a nest.
  • Inspect proposed infrastructure for collision and entanglement hazards, including overhead wires, fences and turbines.

Threats: Predators, competitors and fire

The larger Wedge-tailed Eagle may compete for prey, nests and nest sites, displace Little Eagles from territories and has been reported to kill them. The ACT tracking study also suggested avoidance of areas where Wedge-tailed Eagles had been recorded.

The supplied documents do not identify fire or hydrology change as confirmed primary threats. Fire planning and watercourse works should still consider the species' dependence on woodland, mature trees, grassland and riparian corridors, because loss or alteration of these habitats can reduce nesting, roosting or foraging opportunities.

  • Retain mature trees and open woodland near watercourses when planning firebreaks, hazard reduction or access tracks.
  • Assess whether fire intensity, repeated burning or removal of riparian vegetation could reduce prey habitat or mature nest and roost trees.
  • Consider Wedge-tailed Eagle activity when interpreting local absence, nest abandonment or changes in Little Eagle territory use.
  • Avoid assuming that a nearby reserve removes competition or habitat risk, because the supplied ACT plan found reserves may be too small to support a breeding pair.

Survey methodology: 1. Desktop assessment and habitat mapping

The Little Eagle is a wide-ranging, tree-nesting raptor of open woodland, open forest, grassland and riparian areas. The supplied documents do not provide a formal species-specific survey guideline, so project surveys should focus on breeding territories, mature nest trees, flight paths, roosts and connected foraging habitat.

Map open woodland, open forest, grassland, riparian corridors, mature trees and known or historical nest locations before field work.

Treat habitat as potentially connected over several kilometres because Little Eagles may travel many kilometres from nests to feeding areas and one tracked male used a 47 to 67 square kilometre 90 to 95 percent home range over three months.

Check state wildlife records, local bird databases, previous environmental reports and landholder information for sightings, nests, fledglings and regular flight paths.

Typical habitat: Open woodland, open forest, grassland and riparian areas, especially where wooded and open areas form a mosaic.

Recorded home range: Approximately 47 to 67 square kilometres for the tracked male using the 90 to 95 percent home range estimates.

  • Inspect the project area and the surrounding retained habitat for mature living trees, stick nests, likely roost trees, open hunting areas and movement corridors.
  • Extend the search beyond the construction footprint where works could affect a nest, roost, flight corridor or foraging area.

Survey methodology: 2. Breeding territory and nest searches

Search suitable mature trees and tree-lined watercourses for stick nests before clearing, access track formation, scaffolding or other disturbance.

Schedule repeat searches from late winter through summer where practicable. Breeding may start in August, eggs are usually laid in late August to early September, hatching occurs after about 37 days or five weeks, and fledging follows after about eight weeks.

Use experienced raptor observers to scan hillsides, woodland edges, river corridors and prominent trees for adults, territorial soaring, calling, display flights, nest repair, prey deliveries, incubating birds and dependent young.

Breeding period: Nest building begins in late winter in temperate and arid areas, with laying in early spring and fledging in early summer.

Nest placement: Usually in a mature living tree in open woodland, on hillsides or along tree-lined watercourses.

  • Search each suitable tree from multiple viewpoints and record the tree location, nest condition, height, activity, adult behaviour and any evidence of young.
  • Check for alternate nests because pairs may maintain or repair one or two nests and may use different nests in successive years.
  • Treat a nest as active where an adult is incubating, brooding, repairing the nest, delivering prey, defending the area or attending dependent young.

Survey methodology: 3. Diurnal vantage and flight surveys

Use elevated or open vantage points to scan above woodland, grassland, river corridors and project boundaries during daylight hours.

Record flight direction, altitude, repeated routes, territorial displays, hunting behaviour, perching, interactions with Wedge-tailed Eagles and crossings between retained habitat patches.

Give additional attention to the morning and afternoon periods when local telemetry recorded increased flying activity from 9 am to 5 pm.

Flight behaviour: The species may soar to about 500 metres while searching for prey and may dive rapidly to the ground, trees, shrubs or other birds.

Tracked movement: One male averaged 9.87 kilometres of travel per day, with a maximum recorded daily distance of 27.97 kilometres.

  • Survey on more than one visit and include different weather and wind conditions that allow safe observation of soaring and hunting birds.
  • Do not rely on a single absence observation, because Little Eagles can range widely and may be inconspicuous when high above the ground.
  • Use binoculars or a spotting scope and record the observer position, start and finish times, weather, visibility, wind, survey area and all observations.

Survey methodology: 4. Roost, foraging and movement surveys

Inspect retained mature trees and woodland edges for repeated perching or roosting, particularly near open woodland, grassland and likely prey areas.

Map likely movement corridors between breeding trees, roosts and feeding areas, including corridors crossing roads, urban edges, rural land and project boundaries.

Where a project may affect a known territory, consider telemetry or equivalent targeted movement monitoring in consultation with the relevant wildlife authority and a qualified raptor ecologist.

Telemetry result: The tracked male used open woodland for 57 percent of fixes and grassland for 22 percent of fixes.

Roosting pattern: Roosting was concentrated in mature trees at locations including Strathnairn, Dunlop Reserve, Gooromon Ponds and CSIRO lands.

  • Record repeated use of trees, flight paths, prey remains, hunting areas and areas used by both flying and perched birds.
  • Assess whether proposed clearing separates mature roost trees from open hunting habitat or removes a corridor between seasonal use areas.
  • Treat urban areas as possible flight routes, but do not assume that occasional urban overflight means the area is suitable for breeding.

Survey methodology: Minimum effort and reporting

  • Use repeat daytime visits through the relevant breeding period rather than relying on one site inspection, because no fixed species-specific survey effort is provided in the supplied documents.
  • Document the area searched, observer effort, dates, times, weather, visibility, survey method, all records and the basis for concluding that a nest or territory was absent.
  • Submit confirmed records, nest locations, breeding observations and significant flight records to the relevant state or territory wildlife database.
  • Report active nests, dependent young, injured birds and suspected poisoning promptly to the relevant state or territory wildlife authority.
  • Retain maps and raw field data with the project environmental records and provide them to the approving authority when required.

Before habitat disturbance: Avoid and minimise

Avoid clearing or construction impacts first. Little Eagles need mature nest trees, large foraging areas, roost trees and movement links between open woodland, grassland and riparian habitat.

Retain active and historical nest trees, mature roost trees, open woodland, grassland, riparian vegetation and habitat links between them.

Design the project to avoid removing a breeding territory or separating a nest from its foraging and roosting areas.

Retain connected open woodland corridors where possible. A tracked male used a corridor between Strathnairn, the West Belconnen area, Gooromon Ponds, CSIRO lands and NSW rural land.

  • Keep construction compounds, haul roads, lighting, noisy plant and regular human activity away from active nests and frequently used roosts wherever practicable.
  • Do not protect only the nest tree. Assess and retain associated foraging areas and movement routes because these may be several kilometres from the nest.
  • Avoid removing large trees that provide perches or roosts even where they do not contain a nest.

Before habitat disturbance: Approvals and ecological controls

Confirm the national and state or territory status before works begin. The Little Eagle is not listed under the EPBC Act in the supplied ACT action plan, but it is vulnerable in the ACT and NSW, and the user-provided status information identifies vulnerable listings in Victoria and South Australia.

Determine whether the project may affect a listed ecological community, such as White Box, Yellow Box and Red Gum Grassy Woodland and Derived Native Grassland, even though the Little Eagle itself is not currently EPBC listed.

Obtain any required state or territory wildlife permits, nest disturbance approvals, clearing approvals and construction environmental approvals before disturbing habitat or a nest.

EPBC status in supplied source: Not currently listed under the EPBC Act.

ACT and NSW status: Vulnerable.

  • Refer the action under the EPBC Act if another protected matter may be significantly affected or if the legal status has changed since the supplied documents were prepared.
  • Use the current legislation and advice of the relevant state or territory authority rather than relying on the older ACT action plan alone.
  • Include a Little Eagle section in the fauna management plan, with mapped habitat, nest controls, stop-work triggers, contact details and reporting requirements.

Before habitat disturbance: Timing, staging and pre-clearance

Avoid high disturbance works near an active nest from nest building in late winter through fledging and the post-fledging dependence period, which can extend the breeding cycle to five or six months.

Stage clearing so that retained woodland, mature trees, roosts and movement corridors remain available before and during works.

Complete a pre-clearance inspection immediately before works, because nest use and bird locations can change between seasons.

Post-fledging period: The post-fledging dependence period may extend the breeding cycle to five or six months.

  • Mark exclusion zones, nest trees, roost trees, retained habitat and movement corridors on plans and on the ground.
  • Use fauna exclusion fencing only where it will not block access to retained habitat, create a collision risk or direct birds towards machinery or roads.
  • Brief all workers and subcontractors on the species, habitat markers, reporting chain and stop-work triggers before entering the site.

During habitat disturbance: Daily controls and spotter catcher duties

Works must be controlled around active nests, mature trees, flight corridors and retained habitat. The fauna spotter catcher should have authority to pause work and must be integrated into the daily plant and traffic plan.

Complete a daily pre-start inspection of active nest zones, exclusion areas, retained trees, access routes and any newly exposed habitat.

Keep the fauna spotter catcher in direct communication with machine operators and the site supervisor during clearing, tree removal, excavation and vehicle movements.

Use a qualified and authorised fauna spotter catcher for any fauna handling, nest disturbance or relocation that requires a permit.

  • Maintain clearly visible exclusion markers and inspect them after storms, vehicle movements and site changes.
  • Keep machinery, workers and vehicles out of mapped nest, roost and habitat exclusion areas unless the approved method specifically permits entry.
  • Stop work and reassess if an adult repeatedly alarm calls, circles, displays territorial behaviour, delivers prey, or is displaced from a nest or roost.

During habitat disturbance: If a Little Eagle is found

Stop the activity causing the disturbance and give the bird space to move away without pursuit.

Do not catch, restrain or relocate an adult, fledgling or nestling unless the person is authorised under the relevant state or territory requirements and the action is covered by the fauna management plan or permit.

Contact the project ecologist and the relevant wildlife authority if the bird is injured, trapped, grounded, displaced from a nest or unable to fly.

  • Keep people, vehicles and dogs away from the bird and prevent further disturbance while advice is obtained.
  • Place an injured bird in the hands of an authorised wildlife carer or veterinarian through the approved wildlife response process.
  • Do not place a healthy fledgling in a distant location. If relocation is authorised, use nearby retained habitat selected by the project ecologist so that the bird remains near its territory and parents.

During habitat disturbance: Habitat feature handling and stop-work triggers

Retain mature nest and roost trees, including trees without an obvious nest where they form part of a regularly used woodland corridor.

Do not remove a tree, limb or nest-supporting structure if an active nest, adult attendance or dependent young is detected until the ecologist and authority have approved the response.

Manage fallen timber, rocks, burrows, wetlands and other fauna features under the general fauna management plan, while recognising that the supplied Little Eagle documents identify trees, open woodland, grassland and riparian habitat as the species' main requirements.

  • Stop work immediately if an active nest, dependent young, injured Little Eagle, unexploded nest material or repeated territorial response is found within the work area.
  • Stop work if clearing would sever a mapped movement corridor or remove a mature roost tree identified during pre-clearance checks.
  • Stop work if an unexpected collision, electrocution, poisoning event or interaction with a Wedge-tailed Eagle occurs, and record the incident.

During habitat disturbance: Records and incident reporting

  • Record each observation, including date, time, location, behaviour, flight direction, nest status, number of birds, habitat feature, activity underway and action taken.
  • Record all pre-start checks, exclusion-zone breaches, stop-work events, fauna handling, injuries, releases, deaths and authority notifications.
  • Photograph nests, roost trees, habitat markers and incidents from a safe distance without approaching or disturbing the bird.
  • Provide daily fauna records to the project ecologist and report serious incidents to the relevant regulator in accordance with approval conditions.

After habitat disturbance: Post-clearance inspection

Post-work checks should confirm that retained habitat remains usable and that the project has not displaced a breeding pair or removed access to foraging and roosting areas.

Inspect the cleared edge and retained habitat for injured, trapped or displaced birds, damaged nest trees, fallen nests, blocked movement routes and new collision hazards.

Check retained mature trees and known nest locations after major clearing stages, storms and changes to access, lighting or traffic.

Confirm that exclusion fencing, tree protection, lighting controls and habitat markers remain in place and effective.

  • Complete a final fauna sweep before demobilising the spotter catcher from each work area.
  • Remove temporary controls only after the project ecologist confirms that they are no longer needed and that no active nest or dependent young is affected.
  • Record any change in bird use, nest status, roosting trees or flight routes.

After habitat disturbance: Monitoring and reporting

Monitor known nests and retained habitat through the next relevant breeding period where the project affects a known territory, nest tree, roost or movement corridor.

Use repeated observations of nest attendance, territorial behaviour, fledging and habitat use to assess whether the pair continues to use the area.

Compare post-work records with pre-work records, including nest activity, flight routes, roost use and use of open woodland and grassland.

Telemetry limitation: The cited movement study covered only late October 2015 to late January 2016 and did not represent all seasons or a successful breeding period.

  • Report monitoring results, unexpected impacts, corrective actions and unresolved risks to the approving authority and relevant wildlife database where required.
  • Continue monitoring where works occur near the Lower Molonglo type of connected breeding and foraging area, because the tracked bird shifted its use northward during spring and summer.
  • Update the fauna management plan if monitoring identifies a new nest, roost, movement corridor or repeated disturbance response.

After habitat disturbance: Offsets and corrective action

Apply offsets or other approved conservation measures only after avoidance and minimisation have been addressed.

Where residual impacts remain, prioritise measures that protect mature trees, open woodland, grassland, riparian habitat and connected movement routes near the affected territory.

Review whether the proposed offset is accessible to the birds and includes roosting trees close to foraging habitat rather than relying only on the area of cleared vegetation.

  • Use the relevant approval conditions and state or territory policy to define offset requirements.
  • Do not treat an offset as a substitute for retaining an active nest, a mature roost tree or a functioning movement corridor where those features can be protected on site.
  • Document the location, tenure, management actions, funding and monitoring period for any offset.

Rehabilitation actions: Restore habitat structure

Rehabilitation should restore the connected open woodland and grassland structure used for hunting, roosting and movement. It should retain mature trees and provide future nesting and perching resources.

Re-establish locally appropriate open woodland, grassland and riparian vegetation around retained mature trees and along movement corridors.

Use locally suitable native tree, shrub and grass species that match the pre-clearing community and provide open flight space beneath and between mature trees.

Protect retained mature trees during earthworks and rehabilitation, because replacement plantings will not provide immediate nest or roost structure.

  • Restore links between retained woodland patches, riparian corridors and open hunting areas where clearing has fragmented them.
  • Avoid dense planting that removes the open woodland structure used for hunting and movement.
  • Control weeds and prevent revegetation works from creating a dense barrier beneath known flight corridors.

Rehabilitation actions: Nest, roost and fauna features

Retain existing mature nest and roost trees and allow younger replacement trees to mature within the retained habitat.

Consider nest boxes or artificial nesting structures only where recommended by a qualified raptor ecologist and approved by the relevant authority, because the supplied documents do not specify a Little Eagle nest-box design or installation height.

Reinstate suitable logs, rocks, ground cover and drainage features for the prey community where they were removed, while keeping the open woodland and grassland structure required by the eagle.

  • Do not place nest boxes close to active nests, roads, construction areas or regular human activity without site-specific ecological advice.
  • Prevent new artificial structures, fencing and power infrastructure from creating collision or entanglement hazards.
  • Keep rehabilitated trees and roost structures free from lighting that could disturb night roosting areas.

Rehabilitation actions: Management and success measures

Manage weeds, pest animals and fire so that open woodland, grassland, riparian habitat and mature trees remain suitable for hunting and roosting.

Assess rabbit and other pest control programs for secondary poisoning risk, especially where poisoned carcasses could be available to raptors.

Monitor rehabilitated areas for nest establishment, roost use, adult presence, fledging, flight paths, tree survival, weed cover and connectivity.

Poisoning concern: The ACT action plan identifies possible secondary poisoning from Pindone used for rabbit control as a risk requiring assessment.

Habitat loss in the ACT: Approximately 80 percent of estimated lowland woodland has been lost since European settlement.

  • Use non-toxic or authority-approved pest control methods where practicable and remove carcasses as required by the approved pest management program.
  • Do not apply Pindone or other poisons near Little Eagle habitat without assessing home range and habitat use and implementing measures required by the relevant authority.
  • Set measurable success criteria for tree survival, native vegetation establishment, retained corridor width, nest or roost use and absence of project-related injury or mortality.
  • Continue monitoring through at least the relevant breeding period and extend it where the project affects a known breeding territory or movement corridor.

Sources