Large-eared Flying-fox (Pteropus macrotis)

Conservation status

Breeding behaviour, All states and territories: Colonial breeder. Breeds in colonies or shared roosts, so one breeding place can hold a large share of the local population.

Breeding season

The Large-eared Flying-fox is poorly known in Australia, and species-specific breeding months have not been recorded. Use the general flying-fox pattern below as a planning guide only, and confirm local activity in the Torres Strait, where the Australian range is known from mangrove islands near Boigu Island and Saibai Island. Colonies can contain large numbers of flying-foxes and may function as maternity roosts, so treat any dense camp with dependent young as an active breeding place. In Queensland, tampering with a breeding place of this least concern colonial breeder requires the higher risk species management program, and flying-fox camp works must also follow the relevant roost management requirements.

Breeding mode: Live young are born and raised in colonies or shared maternity roosts. Species-specific mating and birth timing is not recorded.

Litter size: Not recorded.

Gestation: Not recorded.

Young and weaning: Dependent young are expected to remain associated with the mother and colony after birth. Species-specific fledging and weaning timing is not recorded.

Age at maturity: Not recorded.

Breeding places and colonies: Camps can occur in vegetation with a dense understorey, usually close to water. Flying-foxes generally congregate in large numbers, although species-specific colony sizes and site fidelity are not recorded.

Recognising an active breeding place: Look for a dense camp, adults clustering closely, repeated use of the same vegetation, mating activity, females carrying or nursing young, young flying near adults, and crèche-like groups. Avoid night work and work on hot days. Use camp buffers and schedule works outside the local birthing and crèche period. In Queensland, do not disperse or destroy a roost while flying-foxes have dependent young or during heat stress events. Monitor for heat stress on days of 38 degrees or more.

Timing can vary between years, camps and regions, so inspect the site before works and revise the risk period when local breeding, dependent young or heat stress are observed.

• Mating and reproductive activity, general flying-fox pattern: Use this broad planning pattern cautiously because breeding timing for the Large-eared Flying-fox has not been recorded and may differ in the tropical Torres Strait.
• Births and dependent young, general flying-fox pattern: Treat camps as potentially supporting dependent young from late winter through autumn until local surveys confirm otherwise.
• Colony and maternity roost use: Camps may be used throughout the year, and a dense camp close to water or with repeated occupation should be managed as a sensitive breeding place.
• Presence and night foraging in the Australian range: Flying-foxes may forage up to 40 km from camp at night and can move hundreds of kilometres as flowering and fruiting resources change.
• Heat stress and camp disturbance risk: Check weather and camp conditions before works, with particular care on days of 38 degrees or more, and never work inside a camp at night or on hot days.
• Highest clearing risk: The highest risk is during the general birthing and dependent-young period, when clearing, dispersal or disturbance can harm young, mothers and maternity colonies.

Identification: Appearance and field identification

The Large-eared Flying-fox is a poorly known species in Australia. The available species information does not give reliable measurements or detailed field marks, so records from works sites should be checked by an experienced flying-fox ecologist where identification is uncertain.

Do not identify this species from the common name alone. Confirm the record using an appropriate regional flying-fox reference and, where needed, photographs or an experienced fauna ecologist.

Look for a fruit bat with a fox-like face, broad wings and a furry body. These are general flying-fox features and are not sufficient on their own to separate the Large-eared Flying-fox from other species.

Identification: Calls and similar species

Flying-foxes do not use echolocation. They produce social calls in camps and while feeding. Calling may increase when animals are crowded, disturbed or moving through a roost.

Other flying-foxes can look similar. The available species information does not provide distinguishing features or a species-specific call description, so uncertain records should be treated as flying-fox records until checked.

Identification: Field signs

Inspect the ground and vegetation below a suspected camp for droppings, fruit remains, chewed flowers and leaves, staining, odour and accumulations of discarded plant material.

Roosting animals may leave flattened or broken foliage, claw marks and repeated use of branches. Flying-foxes do not build nests, and a nest-like structure should not be assumed to be evidence of this species.

Distribution: Australian range

In Australia, the Large-eared Flying-fox is known from a very restricted Torres Strait area. The Australian record is associated with mangrove islands beside Boigu Island and Saibai Island, close to the New Guinea coast.

The known Australian locations are within a few kilometres of the New Guinea coast. No broader mainland Australian distribution should be assumed during project planning.

For a proposed site, confirm the record against current Queensland and Torres Strait fauna databases, recent sightings and local ecological knowledge.

• Boigu Island area, including adjacent mangrove island habitat
• Saibai Island area, including adjacent mangrove island habitat

Distribution: Project checks

A flying-fox record away from the known Australian locations may represent another species, a temporary movement, a data error or a need for taxonomic confirmation. Keep the observation, photographs, coordinates, date and habitat description for review.

Habitat: Vegetation and landforms

The Large-eared Flying-fox is associated with tropical island environments, including mangrove habitat in its known Australian range. Flying-foxes can use a range of vegetation types, so habitat checks should extend beyond the immediate construction footprint.

On Torres Strait sites, inspect mangrove islands, tidal margins, freshwater edges, rainforest patches and other dense vegetation near food or shelter resources.

Map connections between the works area, nearby water and continuous vegetation. These links may be used by flying-foxes moving between roosting and feeding areas.

Habitat: Site assessment

Record canopy condition, understorey density, flowering and fruiting plants, permanent or tidal water, exposed shorelines and signs of repeated animal use.

Survey adjoining vegetation as well as the development footprint. A camp or flight path may be outside the clearing area but still be affected by noise, lighting, access tracks or loss of food plants.

Foraging habitat: Food plants

Flying-foxes feed on plant products and may travel well beyond a camp to locate seasonal food. A site with flowering or fruiting vegetation can attract animals even when no camp is present.

Inspect eucalypts, melaleucas and banksias for flowers, nectar and pollen. Also check rainforest trees and vines for fruit.

In island and coastal settings, inspect mangrove margins and other native vegetation for flowering or fruiting resources used by flying-foxes.

• Flowers and nectar
• Pollen
• Rainforest fruits
• Fruit from vines and other native trees

Foraging habitat: Movement to feeding areas

Flying-foxes may travel up to 40 km from a camp at night to feed. They can also move hundreds of kilometres when following flowering and fruiting resources.

Schedule vegetation inspections across the relevant flowering and fruiting period where practicable. A single daytime inspection cannot show the full value of a site as feeding habitat.

Foraging habitat: Construction controls

Retain important flowering and fruiting trees where possible. Avoid unnecessary night lighting near feeding habitat, camps and movement corridors.

Where clearing cannot be avoided, inspect trees for roosting animals before works and use a fauna spotter catcher in accordance with the approved project controls.

Breeding habitat: Breeding places

The Large-eared Flying-fox is profiled as a colonial breeder. Species-specific information on breeding timing, maternity sites and young is limited, so any regularly occupied camp should be managed as a potential breeding place until surveys show otherwise.

A breeding place may be a shared camp or maternity roost where many animals gather in close association. It may contain adults, females carrying young, dependent young and animals moving between roosting branches.

Breeding habitat is likely to include sheltered vegetation near water and food resources. Dense canopy and understorey can provide shade, concealment and protection from wind.

Breeding habitat: How to recognise an active breeding place

Look for repeated occupation, high numbers of flying-foxes, females carrying young, young clinging to adults, juveniles clustered in branches and regular movement between adjoining roost trees.

Record the extent of occupied vegetation, the number of animals, evidence of dependent young, recent disturbance and nearby food and water. Use repeated observations because camp use can change during the day.

Breeding habitat: Breeding protection on works sites

In Queensland, tampering with the breeding place of a least concern colonial breeder requires a high risk species management program under the Nature Conservation (Animals) Regulation 2020. This is different from the low risk program used for other least concern animals.

Before clearing, trimming or construction near an occupied camp, confirm the required approval, species management program and project method with the relevant Queensland authority. Do not rely on the species being listed as least concern to reduce the level of planning required.

Sheltering habitat: Roost features

Flying-fox camps are usually in vegetation with a dense understorey and are generally close to water. Some animals may roost alone or in small groups, so the absence of a large camp does not rule out flying-fox use.

Inspect dense canopy, sheltered vegetation, creek lines, wetlands, mangrove margins and other areas close to water. Check both live trees and vegetation that provides shade and protection from weather.

Record roost trees, access routes, nearby water, canopy cover, understorey density and any evidence of regular use.

Sheltering habitat: Camp surveys

Carry out daytime checks for roosting animals and signs, supported by observations around dawn or dusk where this is safe and permitted. Avoid entering a camp at night.

Use a qualified fauna spotter catcher or flying-fox ecologist for close assessment. Do not handle flying-foxes unless appropriately trained, authorised and vaccinated under the relevant workplace arrangements.

Sheltering habitat: Heat and disturbance

Flying-foxes are vulnerable to heat stress. Monitor camps on days when temperatures reach 38 degrees or more, and record fallen or distressed animals through the approved wildlife response process.

Never work in a flying-fox camp at night or on hot days. Keep people, vehicles, machinery, noise and lighting away from occupied roost vegetation unless the approved method specifically allows the activity.

Colonies and breeding places: What a colony looks like

A colony or maternity roost is a shared breeding place where flying-foxes live in close association. One camp can hold a large share of the local population, so disturbance to a small area may affect many animals at once.

A camp usually consists of many flying-foxes hanging from branches in adjoining trees. Animals may form dense groups, spread through several trees or shift between parts of the camp during the day.

Some flying-foxes roost singly or in small groups. A small aggregation can still be part of a larger camp or an early stage of camp establishment.

Typical colony size: Species-specific colony counts are not established here. Flying-fox camps generally contain large numbers, while some animals roost alone or in small groups.

Site fidelity: Treat repeated use of the same vegetation as evidence of site value. Confirm local site fidelity through repeat surveys and local records rather than assuming that an apparently empty camp has been abandoned.

Colonies and breeding places: Active breeding place indicators

An active breeding place may show regular occupation, dependent young, females carrying young, crèching juveniles, concentrated adults and repeated use of the same roost trees.

Survey the whole camp and its margins. Young may be difficult to see within dense foliage, and a quiet or partly occupied camp may still require breeding-place controls.

• Live flying-foxes in several adjoining roost trees
• Dependent young or juveniles gathered in branches
• Females carrying young
• Fresh droppings, odour, staining, broken foliage or other recent signs
• Repeated occupation on separate survey days

Colonies and breeding places: Buffers and timing

Set a camp buffer around occupied roost vegetation and increase the buffer where animals are clinging to the edge of the camp, young are present, or machinery and noise could cause movement into hazardous areas. The buffer should be specified by the approved ecological and regulatory method, not selected as a generic distance.

Plan works outside the birthing and crèche period where practicable. Confirm the local breeding period through current surveys and advice because species-specific timing for the Large-eared Flying-fox is not established in this profile.

Colonies and breeding places: Queensland camp management

In Queensland, flying-fox roost management is regulated under the Nature Conservation Act 1992. Relevant requirements include the Code of Practice for ecologically sustainable management of flying-fox roosts and the code for low impact activities affecting flying-fox roosts.

Councils have an as-of-right authority for roosts inside urban flying-fox management areas. Other proponents need a flying-fox roost management permit. Dispersal or destruction of a roost is not allowed while flying-foxes are breeding with dependent young or during heat stress events.

Do not disperse or destroy a roost without confirming the lawful pathway. Maintain heat stress monitoring, including on days of 38 degrees or more, and never work in a camp at night or on hot days.

Threats: Clearing and habitat loss

The main works-site risks are loss of roost and feeding habitat, disturbance of occupied camps and heat stress. Protection requirements apply even though the species is listed as least concern in Australia.

Clearing mangroves, dense roost vegetation, rainforest trees, vines or flowering food plants can remove shelter and feeding resources.

Plan the footprint to retain occupied camps, mature food trees, vegetation near water and links between roosting and feeding areas. Re-vegetation can provide additional habitat away from affected areas, but it does not replace the need to protect an occupied camp during works.

Threats: Disturbance and camp displacement

Noise, lighting, machinery, vegetation removal and repeated human activity can disturb a camp or shift its boundary. Once a camp is established, noise and visual deterrence may have significant effects and require careful regulatory review.

Use buffers, staged works and low-disturbance methods. Do not begin dispersal, boundary shifting or roost removal without the required Queensland approvals and management plan.

Threats: Heat stress and animal welfare

Heat stress can cause flying-foxes to fall from trees or become distressed. Risk rises during very hot weather and can be increased by disturbance, loss of shade and crowding.

Monitor camps on days of 38 degrees or more. Stop or postpone camp works during heat stress events, keep machinery and people out of the camp, and follow the approved wildlife rescue response for injured or fallen animals.

Threats: Regulatory and site controls

All flying-foxes are protected native wildlife under Queensland legislation. Check the applicable species management program, roost management pathway, permit conditions and workplace safety controls before works.

For this least concern colonial breeder, tampering with a breeding place in Queensland requires a high risk species management program. Engage a suitably experienced ecologist early, particularly where clearing, construction or roost management may affect an occupied colony.

Survey methodology: 1. Desktop assessment

The Large-eared Flying-fox is poorly known in Australia. Survey it as a flying-fox that may use camps, shared roosts and nearby feeding habitat, while checking for the species at its known Australian locations near Boigu Island and Saibai Island.

Map camps, roost vegetation, waterways, mangroves, dense understorey and flowering or fruiting vegetation before planning works.

Check whether the site is within or near an urban flying-fox management area in Queensland. Confirm whether the activity could affect a camp, breeding place, habitat or movement route.

Review recent records, local council information, landholder observations and previous ecological reports. Treat an apparently empty camp as potentially important until surveys show otherwise.

• Inspect aerial imagery for dense vegetation near water and likely camp areas.
• Identify nearby habitat that could support feeding or movement between camp and foraging areas.
• Record the date, source and confidence of each record.

Survey methodology: 2. Camp and habitat inspection

Inspect likely roost habitat during daylight. Look for flying-foxes hanging in vegetation, fresh droppings, feeding remains, broken branches, odour, noise and areas of trampled or heavily used ground.

Visit again near dusk where safe and authorised. Watch for animals leaving the camp and record the direction and approximate scale of movement.

Do not enter a camp at night. Do not work in a camp on hot days or when heat stress is occurring.

• Record the location and extent of each occupied or recently occupied roost.
• Map dense roost vegetation, access tracks, water, nearby buildings and proposed work areas.
• Record weather, temperature, recent rain, flowering and fruiting conditions, survey start and finish times, observers and survey conditions.
• Record whether animals are solitary, in small groups or congregated in large numbers.

Survey methodology: 3. Feeding and movement surveys

Survey flowering and fruiting plants during the day, then observe activity around dusk where suitable. Flying-foxes may travel up to 40 km from camps at night to feed and may move hundreds of kilometres as food resources change.

Search for feeding remains beneath fruiting or flowering trees. Look for chewed fruit, discarded flowers, pollen-stained material and droppings, while recognising that these signs do not identify the species on their own.

Use direct observation and photography where possible. Acoustic recording can support a survey, but it should not replace visual confirmation or habitat assessment.

• Record plant species, flowering or fruiting condition and evidence of feeding.
• Record flight direction, approximate activity level and links between roosting and feeding areas.
• Repeat observations when conditions change, especially after major flowering or fruiting events.
• Avoid bright lights and other disturbance near a camp.

Survey methodology: 4. Breeding place assessment and reporting

Treat a camp or shared maternity roost as a possible breeding place until an experienced ecologist has assessed it. An active breeding place may contain adults with dependent young, closely associated mothers and young, concentrated calling, repeated use of particular trees or groups of animals remaining in the camp during the day.

The Large-eared Flying-fox has limited published site-specific breeding information. Use local observations and advice from the Queensland Department of the Environment, Tourism, Science and Innovation, council and a suitably experienced flying-fox ecologist.

Prepare a map and photo record before works are approved.

• Record evidence of dependent young, occupied roost trees, camp boundaries and access points.
• Describe the level of activity without estimating a colony size unless it has been counted using a defensible method.
• Record any heat stress, injured animals, mortality, disturbance or recent dispersal.
• State survey limitations and identify further survey needs before disturbance begins.

Before habitat disturbance: 1. Confirm approvals and responsibilities

Plan avoidance first. A camp, colony or shared maternity roost can hold a substantial part of the local population, so small changes to roost vegetation or access can have wider effects.

Check the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 before clearing habitat, dispersing a camp or changing a roost. The Large-eared Flying-fox is not listed under that Act, but referral requirements may still arise from other protected matters or project impacts.

In Queensland, obtain the correct authority before interfering with a breeding place. Because this species is a least concern colonial breeder, tampering with its breeding place requires a high risk species management program under the Nature Conservation (Animals) Regulation 2020.

Confirm whether a Queensland flying-fox roost management permit, council authority or other state approval is required. Councils have as-of-right authority for roosts inside urban flying-fox management areas. Other proponents need a flying-fox roost management permit.

• Ask the approval agency to confirm the proposed activity, timing and limits in writing.
• Check the Queensland Code of Practice for ecologically sustainable management of flying-fox roosts.
• Check the code for low impact activities affecting flying-fox roosts before treating work as low impact.
• Obtain any fauna permits, rehabilitation permissions and contractor authorisations before mobilisation.

Before habitat disturbance: 2. Avoid the camp and breeding place

Redesign the work to retain the camp, maternity roost, established flight paths and nearby feeding vegetation. Keep disturbance outside the camp wherever practicable.

Do not disperse or destroy a roost while flying-foxes are breeding with dependent young or during a heat stress event.

Schedule work outside the local birthing and crèche period, based on current local advice and a pre-work assessment. Species-specific breeding months are not established for this profile, so do not assume a standard seasonal window.

• Set a site-specific buffer around the camp and occupied roost trees using advice from the approval and the project ecologist.
• Fence and sign the buffer before machinery arrives.
• Keep lighting, noise, dust, vibration and vehicle movements away from the camp.
• Monitor days forecast to reach 38 degrees or more and suspend camp work during heat stress conditions.

Before habitat disturbance: 3. Complete the pre-clearance survey

Carry out a final inspection shortly before works begin. Confirm the camp boundary, occupied trees, dependent young, injured animals and any change since the original survey.

A final inspection is not a substitute for an approved management program or permit. Stop and reassess if animals have moved into the work area or a new colony is found.

Use an experienced fauna spotter catcher with authority to direct the contractor and stop work.

• Inspect trees, dense vegetation, ground beneath roosts and retained habitat.
• Check for adults carrying or closely attending dependent young.
• Confirm that rescue equipment, transport containers, contact numbers and a wildlife carer or veterinarian pathway are ready.
• Record the inspection date, weather, temperature, people present, findings and approval conditions.

Before habitat disturbance: 4. Induct the work crew

Explain that all flying-foxes are protected native animals under Queensland legislation, regardless of their national listing. Make the camp buffer, stop-work process and emergency contacts clear to everyone.

Tell workers never to touch, chase, corner, feed or photograph an animal at close range. Handling must be done only by authorised and appropriately trained people.

• Show workers the camp boundary, exclusion zones and safe access routes.
• Prohibit night work in the camp and work on hot days in the camp.
• Require immediate reporting of any flying-fox, dependent young, occupied roost, injured animal or change in camp location.
• Keep machinery, lighting and noise controls available and functional.

During habitat disturbance: 1. Clear in stages

Use a staged, low-disturbance approach. The spotter catcher should have clear authority to stop work, and work must stop whenever conditions differ from the approved plan.

Start with the least sensitive areas and retain a clear escape route to suitable habitat. Work progressively so animals are not surrounded or driven into machinery, roads or buildings.

Do not clear a camp, breeding place or occupied roost under an approval that does not cover that action. Follow the approved sequence, buffers and monitoring requirements exactly.

• Mark the next work area before each stage begins.
• Inspect vegetation and the ground before machinery enters.
• Use a spotter catcher to watch the active work face and nearby retained habitat.
• Pause between stages to check for animals, dependent young and camp movement.

During habitat disturbance: 2. Stop work when a colony or breeding place is found

Stop work immediately if a colony, active camp, maternity roost, occupied roost tree or dependent young is found outside the approved area. Keep people and machinery away and prevent further disturbance.

Contact the project ecologist and approval holder. Obtain advice from the relevant Queensland authority before resuming.

An active breeding place may be recognised by adults with dependent young, mothers and young closely associated in roost trees, or repeated use of a defined group of trees for breeding.

• Establish a temporary exclusion zone and keep workers outside it.
• Do not disperse animals with noise, vehicles, lights or visual methods.
• Do not enter the camp to inspect it at night or during a heat stress event.
• Reassess the method, timing, buffer and approval before restarting.

During habitat disturbance: 3. Handle animals safely

Only authorised and trained personnel may capture, handle or transport a flying-fox. Do not attempt hand rescue unless the person has the required authority, training and equipment.

Keep people away from bites, scratches, saliva and bodily fluids. Follow the project biosecurity and workplace health procedures.

Seek urgent advice for an animal that is grounded, entangled, injured, trapped, overheated or separated from a dependent young.

• Stop machinery and secure the area.
• Contact the nominated wildlife carer, veterinarian or wildlife authority immediately.
• Do not release an animal without advice on its condition, location and any dependent young.
• Record the animal location, condition, action taken, handler and destination.

During habitat disturbance: 4. Manage heat, light and camp disturbance

Flying-foxes can suffer heat stress. Monitor the forecast and site temperature, particularly on days of 38 degrees or more. Never work in a camp on a hot day or during observed heat stress.

Keep lighting directed away from the camp and avoid night work. Do not use noise or visual deterrents unless specifically approved and managed by an experienced practitioner.

• Check animals for panting, agitation, wing spreading, falling or grounded individuals.
• Stop work and withdraw personnel if heat stress is observed.
• Maintain shade, quiet and access to retained vegetation.
• Notify the ecologist and approval authority of any heat stress event or mortality.

During habitat disturbance: 5. Keep field records

Record each work stage and any interaction with flying-foxes. Good records support compliance, incident review and decisions about later stages.

Photograph signs, boundaries and affected vegetation where this can be done without entering the camp or disturbing animals.

• Record date, time, location, weather, temperature and work activity.
• Record animal numbers only when a defensible count is possible, and otherwise describe the observation clearly.
• Record stop-work events, approvals consulted, instructions received, injuries, rescues, deaths and outcomes.
• Have the spotter catcher and site supervisor sign the daily fauna record.

After habitat disturbance: 1. Complete post-clearance checks

Complete a careful close-out before the site is handed back to the construction team. Follow-up is needed where animals were handled, a camp was disturbed or habitat was removed.

Inspect the cleared area, retained vegetation, exclusion zones and access routes after each stage and again at the end of clearing. Look for grounded, trapped, injured or dead animals and dependent young.

Check the edge of the camp and nearby vegetation for animals displaced by noise, lighting or machinery.

Do not enter an occupied camp at night. Use a trained and authorised person for any required daytime inspection.

• Search beneath trees, along fences, in hollows and around machinery for trapped animals.
• Confirm that no fauna exclusion fencing has trapped or blocked flying-foxes.
• Record the condition of retained roost and feeding vegetation.
• Keep the site under observation if animals remain in the work area.

After habitat disturbance: 2. Report outcomes and incidents

Report all incidents required by the approval, management program, permit or council conditions. Include near misses, unauthorised disturbance and any failure of the approved sequence.

Notify the relevant authority promptly of injury, mortality, heat stress, camp dispersal or discovery of an active breeding place, according to the applicable conditions.

• Submit the fauna spotter catcher report, daily records, maps and photographs.
• List animals handled, transferred, released, treated or found dead.
• Record the cause, response and outcome for each stop-work event.
• Keep approvals, permits, induction records and rehabilitation records with the project file.

After habitat disturbance: 3. Monitor relocated or treated animals

Follow the wildlife carer or veterinarian's instructions for any relocated, treated or rehabilitated animal. Do not move flying-foxes to a new site without appropriate authority and expert advice.

Where monitoring is required, check the release area and nearby habitat for signs of injury, return, conflict or dependence on a mother.

• Record release location, date, time, condition and responsible person.
• Do not disturb a released animal to obtain a closer observation.
• Report a failed release, repeat injury, mortality or return to the work area.
• Continue checks for the period required by the approval or rehabilitation plan.

After habitat disturbance: 4. Review the work method

Hold a close-out review with the project manager, ecologist, spotter catcher and contractor. Use the review to adjust buffers, timing, lighting, access and induction content for later stages.

Treat repeated camp movement, heat stress or animal encounters as evidence that the method needs to change.

• Compare actual work with the approved sequence and conditions.
• Identify where the camp boundary or roost use changed.
• Record corrective actions, responsible people and due dates.
• Do not restart a changed activity until any new approval or ecological advice is in place.

Rehabilitation actions: 1. Restore roost and feeding habitat

Rehabilitation should restore safe roosting, feeding and movement habitat rather than simply replace cleared plants. Design the outcome around local flying-fox use, nearby water and the need for connected, low-disturbance vegetation.

Retain mature trees and dense understorey wherever possible. Replant locally appropriate native species that provide flowers, nectar, pollen or fruit at different times of the year.

Use site conditions to guide planting, particularly water availability, flood tolerance, soil, wind exposure and proximity to existing camps.

Do not create a new roost beside houses, roads or active work areas without expert planning and approval.

• Reconnect retained vegetation with nearby habitat where practicable.
• Restore streamside, wetland, mangrove and other suitable vegetation affected by works.
• Protect new plantings from vehicles, fire, grazing and compaction.
• Use staged planting so cover develops without forcing animals into unsafe areas.

Rehabilitation actions: 2. Manage weeds, water and fire risk

Control weeds without removing the shelter needed by roosting animals. Stage weed removal where dense vegetation is occupied or likely to be used.

Maintain natural water sources and avoid creating stagnant water, polluted runoff or unsafe open tanks near the camp.

Plan fire management with the ecological function of the roost and surrounding vegetation in mind.

• Inspect and map weeds before treatment.
• Use methods and timing that avoid disturbing occupied roosts and dependent young.
• Keep chemicals, sediment and wash water out of waterways.
• Provide safe covers or escape features for tanks and other water infrastructure.

Rehabilitation actions: 3. Use replacement structures only where suitable

Nest boxes, bat boxes and artificial nest sites are generally not a direct replacement for an open flying-fox camp or maternity roost. Flying-foxes usually roost in vegetation, so retain and restore suitable trees first.

Consider artificial roost structures only where a flying-fox ecologist and the relevant authority confirm that the design, location and approval pathway suit the species and project.

Do not install structures that attract animals into a hazardous location or create a false impression that a breeding place has been replaced.

• Document the reason for the structure and the target ecological function.
• Place any approved structure away from roads, buildings, intense lighting and regular construction activity.
• Inspect structures for damage, heat exposure, entanglement risk and use.
• Maintain or remove structures if monitoring shows they are unsafe or unsuitable.

Rehabilitation actions: 4. Control lighting and future disturbance

Design the rehabilitated site to keep night lighting away from roosting and movement areas. Use the lowest practical intensity and direct light only where needed.

Keep access tracks, maintenance areas and future construction footprints outside the restored buffer.

Include the camp and restored habitat in the site's environmental management plan.

• Use shields, timers and motion controls where appropriate.
• Avoid lighting directly into trees, along flight paths or across water used by flying-foxes.
• Mark no-go areas on plans and on the ground.
• Induct maintenance crews before vegetation or lighting work begins.

Rehabilitation actions: 5. Monitor rehabilitation

Monitor plant survival, weed control, roost use, feeding activity, camp movement and animal welfare. The monitoring period should match the approval and the time needed for vegetation to establish.

Use results to adapt planting, watering, access control and future works. The species is poorly known in Australia, so retain clear records that improve local understanding without disturbing the animals.

• Inspect restored areas after planting, severe weather, heat events and major flowering or fruiting periods.
• Record vegetation condition, animal use, disturbance, mortality and maintenance actions.
• Map any new roost or maternity use and reassess buffers before further works.
• Provide monitoring reports to the land manager, approval authority and council where required.

Sources

• Flying-foxes and national environmental law, Australian Government DCCEEW: https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/threatened/species/flying-fox-law
• Occurrence records for the distribution map, Atlas of Living Australia: https://biocache.ala.org.au/
• Species Management Program requirements for tampering with a protected animal breeding place, Queensland Government DETSI: https://environment.qld.gov.au/licences-permits/plants-animals/species-management-program
• Flying-fox roost management in Queensland, Queensland Government: https://environment.qld.gov.au/management/wildlife-animals/living-with-wildlife/flying-foxes/roost-management