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Ground Cuckooshrike (Coracina maxima)

The Ground Cuckooshrike is a large, uncommon Australian bird of open woodland, arid shrubland and open grassland, especially where dead trees and nearby watercourses, floodplains or wetlands occur. It is thinly distributed and probably nomadic, so clearing surveys and habitat assessment should account for temporary use of otherwise suitable inland sites, particularly in Victoria where it is listed as Endangered.

Conservation status

Victoria, Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988: Endangered.

Breeding season

Timing varies across the range, and the species may breed after rain. The table shows the main pattern documented for field planning, not a fixed calendar for every site.

Month values are January to December. A value of 0 means not typical, 1 means occurs, and 2 means peak or highest risk.

  • Breeding: Main breeding season is August to November, with monogamous pairs, nests in trees and clutches of 2 to 5 eggs.
  • Young: Young may remain with parents until the next breeding season and may form small family groups or assist with new young.
  • Movement and group use: The species is probably nomadic in some areas and resident in others. It is often seen in small groups, but no monthly movement pattern is provided.
  • Breeding after rain: Breeding has been reported in all months in one source, mainly August to January and after rain, so local rainfall may alter the timing.
  • Highest clearing risk: Highest risk is during the main August to November breeding period, when clearing may affect nests, eggs and dependent young. Some young may remain with adults beyond November.

Identification

The Ground Cuckooshrike is the largest Australian cuckooshrike. It is a long-legged, slender bird that spends much of its time walking or running on open ground.

Adults have a pale grey head, nape, mantle and breast, a white back and rump finely barred with black, black wings and a long black tail that is slightly forked.

The lower breast and belly are white with fine black barring. The bill and legs are dark grey, and the eyes are pale yellow or buffy white. In flight, the black and white pattern can resemble an Australian Magpie.

Adult length: 33 to 37 cm

Weight: Approximately 115 g

Tail: Long, black and slightly forked

Call: A flight call described as “pee-ew, pee-ew” or “chill-chill.kee-lik, keelick”

Identification: Age and sex differences

The sexes are similar in appearance. Juveniles are duller, with fine or broken dark barring on the throat and upper parts, a darker eye and a dark eye-line rather than the adult pale eye.

  • Do not rely on a black-and-white flying bird alone for identification, because the species may be confused with an Australian Magpie.
  • Check for the combination of long legs, a slightly forked tail, barred white lower parts, black wings and a pale eye.

Identification: Field signs

The most useful field sign is the distinctive flight call, particularly when birds are moving between open ground and scattered trees.

The nest is a cup placed on a horizontal branch or in a tree fork 3 to 15 m above the ground. It may be made from bark, grass, stems and other material, or may be built on an old Magpie-lark, White-winged Chough or Apostlebird nest.

  • Look for small groups walking or running on bare open ground, often with repeated head movements while foraging.
  • Record birds using dead trees, scattered woodland and watercourse margins, as these features are repeatedly associated with the species.

Distribution: National range

The Ground Cuckooshrike is endemic to Australia and is distributed mainly inland of the Great Dividing Range. It is widespread but uncommon and occurs thinly across its range.

The species occurs in parts of all mainland Australian states and territories: Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia, the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory.

Most records are from inland and semi-arid Australia, with occasional occurrence on the east coast. The supplied sources do not define the range using named IBRA bioregions.

Range: Mainland Australia, mainly inland of the Great Dividing Range

Distribution pattern: Widespread but uncommon, thinly distributed and probably nomadic

Named regional example: Declines have been reported in the Murray-Mallee region since the mid-1970s

Distribution: Population and site assessment

A national population estimate is not provided in the supplied documents. The reported population trend is decreasing, and the species may be difficult to detect because it is uncommon and its movements are unpredictable.

No specific national strongholds or discrete subpopulations are identified in the supplied documents. Project assessments should therefore consider suitable habitat and recent records rather than treating an absence from one survey as evidence that the species is absent.

  • Search open woodland, arid shrubland and grassland near creeks, floodplains, wetlands and river channels.
  • Review local and regional records where available, with particular attention to inland Victoria and the Murray-Mallee.

Habitat: Habitat types

Ground Cuckooshrikes use open, dry and lightly timbered country. Suitable habitat usually combines open ground for feeding with scattered trees, dead trees or low open woodland nearby.

Recorded habitats include open woodland, arid shrubland and open grassland, including semi-arid inland country. The species has also been recorded in woodland on river channels and floodplains, mulga shrubland and cleared woodland regrowth.

Vegetation associations mentioned in the supplied material include mulga, cypress-pine and mallee-spinifex.

Habitat: Structural features

Important site features include bare or open ground for feeding, low vegetation density, scattered trees and dead trees. Nearby watercourses, creeks, floodplains and wetlands appear to increase habitat suitability.

Increasing woody vegetation density may reduce the value of open woodland habitat for this species, even where denser vegetation benefits other woodland birds.

  • Map open ground and lightly timbered patches as well as retained trees and dead trees during pre-clearing surveys.
  • Include adjoining watercourses, floodplains, wetlands and river channels in the habitat assessment.
  • Do not assume that cleared regrowth is unsuitable, because cleared woodland regrowth has been recorded as habitat.

Habitat: Climate and elevation

The species is associated with inland, semi-arid and dry subtropical or tropical environments. No elevation limits are provided in the supplied documents.

Foraging habitat: Diet

Ground Cuckooshrikes are adapted to feeding on the ground. They forage in small groups across bare or open ground, usually close to open woodland, shrubland or scattered trees.

The diet consists mainly of insects and other arthropods, including adult and larval mantises, grasshoppers, locusts, ants and spiders. Seeds and leaves have also been reported, and one source records a House Sparrow as prey.

Main food: Ground-dwelling insects and other arthropods

Recorded prey: Mantises, grasshoppers, locusts, ants and spiders

Other reported food: Seeds, leaves and, in one record, a House Sparrow

Foraging habitat: Foraging method and places

Birds walk and run quickly on the ground, sometimes with the head jerking back and forth. They commonly forage in small groups and may occur in family groups of three or more.

The supplied documents do not provide a measured foraging range or home range. Foraging habitat should be assessed across connected open ground, rather than only around individual trees.

  • Inspect bare ground, open grassland, open woodland floors and sparsely vegetated areas for active feeding birds.
  • Retain access between open feeding areas and scattered trees or dead trees.
  • Assess insect-producing ground habitat near watercourses, floodplains and wetlands where these features occur.

Breeding habitat: Breeding biology

Breeding occurs mainly from August to November. Pairs place cup nests in trees, but communal laying and helpers have also been reported.

Ground Cuckooshrikes form monogamous pairs. Nests are cups made from bark, grass, stems and other material, placed on a horizontal branch or in a fork 3 to 15 m above ground.

Nests may be shared by more than one female, and young may remain with the family group until the next breeding season. Helpers have also been reported. The supplied documents do not provide incubation period, age at maturity or lifespan.

Main breeding season: August to November

Additional breeding records: Breeding has been recorded in all months in one source, mainly August to January and after rain

Pairing: Monogamous pairs

Clutch: Usually 2 to 5 eggs; 2 to 3 eggs are also reported

Eggs: Glossy olive with brown or red-brown markings

Nest height: 3 to 15 m above ground

Incubation: Not provided in the supplied documents

Age at maturity: Not provided in the supplied documents

Lifespan: Not provided in the supplied documents

Breeding habitat: Breeding habitat features

Breeding habitat needs suitable trees with horizontal branches or forks 3 to 15 m above ground, together with open woodland, shrubland or grassland used for feeding.

Old nests of Magpie-larks, White-winged Choughs and Apostlebirds may be reused as nest bases. Retain suitable nesting trees and the open ground around them during clearing and construction.

  • Inspect trees and old stick or cup nests before clearing, particularly trees in open woodland and near watercourses or floodplains.
  • Treat groups of three or more birds as potentially including dependent young or helpers, especially before the next breeding season.
  • Apply nest protection and spotter-catcher procedures where an active nest or dependent young are found.

Sheltering habitat: Known shelter features

The supplied documents do not describe specialised roosts, hollows, burrows or dens. Shelter and resting habitat is most clearly associated with scattered trees, dead trees and open woodland used by small groups.

Ground Cuckooshrikes occur in open woodland and dry, lightly timbered country with scattered or dead trees. These trees may provide perches, cover and access to nesting sites.

No specific roost tree size, hollow dimensions, burrow, den, nest shelter or night-roost structure is provided in the supplied documents.

  • Retain scattered live trees and dead trees within open feeding habitat where practicable.
  • Inspect trees and forks 3 to 15 m above ground for nests before removal.
  • Maintain connected open ground and nearby trees rather than isolating retained trees within cleared areas.

Sheltering habitat: Family groups

Small groups may include adults, young and possible helpers. Young can remain with their parents until the next breeding season, so habitat used outside the nesting period may still support dependent birds.

  • Record group size, age class and behaviour during fauna surveys.
  • Treat repeated use of the same open woodland patch, watercourse margin or floodplain as evidence of local habitat use even when no nest is found.

Threats: Habitat loss and structural change

The main documented concern is loss of open woodland structure through increased woody vegetation density. Clearing can also remove feeding ground, nesting trees and dead trees used within suitable habitat.

Clearing of open woodland, arid shrubland and grassland can remove both ground-feeding areas and trees used for nesting or shelter. Increasing woody vegetation density may also make open woodland less suitable.

Fragmentation may reduce access between open feeding ground and scattered trees, although the supplied documents do not quantify fragmentation effects for this species.

  • Avoid unnecessary removal of dead trees, scattered trees and trees with horizontal branches or forks.
  • Limit disturbance to open ground near retained woodland, watercourses, floodplains and wetlands.
  • Manage retained habitat to maintain an open structure where this is consistent with the relevant ecological management objectives.

Threats: Project risks

Clearing during the main breeding period of August to November may destroy active nests, eggs or dependent young. Young may remain with adults until the next breeding season, extending the period in which family groups can be affected by disturbance or habitat removal.

Road construction and vehicle movements may remove or divide open feeding habitat. The supplied documents do not provide species-specific evidence about road mortality, fire, introduced predators, disease or hydrology change.

  • Complete targeted checks for birds, nests and dependent young before clearing, with particular care from August to November.
  • Search trees and forks 3 to 15 m above ground, including old nests that may have been reused or incorporated.
  • Retain movement links between open ground, scattered trees and watercourse or floodplain habitat where practicable.
  • Record and report any confirmed nest, family group or repeated site use so that clearing controls can be adjusted.

Threats: Conservation context

The species is classified as Least Concern globally, but the reported population trend is decreasing. It is listed as Endangered in Victoria according to the project information, and the supplied sources describe it as vulnerable in Victoria.

EPBC Act: Not listed according to the project information

Global status: Least Concern

Victoria: Endangered according to the project information; vulnerable in the supplied source material

Reported trend: Decreasing

  • Use the applicable Victorian threatened fauna requirements where the project is in Victoria.
  • Do not rely on the national Least Concern classification alone when assessing local impacts in Victoria or inland regions with suitable habitat.

Survey methodology: 1. Diurnal habitat and transect searches

The Ground Cuckooshrike is widespread but uncommon, thinly distributed and probably nomadic. Survey design should cover open, dry and lightly timbered habitat, especially where dead trees, mulga, cypress-pine, mallee-spinifex, watercourses, floodplains, creeks or wetlands occur.

Search on foot during daylight across open woodland, arid shrubland and open grassland, including bare ground used for foraging and areas near watercourses, floodplains, creeks and wetlands.

Use transects or systematic searches that cover the full disturbance area and adjacent retained habitat, with extra coverage around dead trees and lightly timbered patches.

Record all sightings, groups, flight direction, behaviour, calls, habitat condition and the location of suitable retained habitat.

The supplied documents do not specify transect length, survey area, number of visits or weather thresholds, so set these in the project survey plan according to the disturbance footprint and the relevant state survey requirements.

Best-supported identification period: The species can be present year round, and is resident in some areas but nomadic in others.

Typical group size: Usually seen in small groups, sometimes including young from the previous breeding season.

Survey methodology: 2. Call and visual detection

Listen for the flight calls described as "pee-ew, pee-ew" or "chill-chill, kee-lik, keelick" while walking through suitable habitat and when birds are flushed by normal survey movement.

Use binoculars to check distant birds and birds in flight, which can appear black and white and may be confused with an Australian magpie.

Confirm records using the species' pale yellow eyes, pale grey head and upper body, finely black-barred white lower back and underparts, black wings and slightly forked black tail.

Treat dark-eyed birds with broken barring on the throat and upper parts as possible immatures and record the age class where it can be determined.

Survey methodology: 3. Breeding and nest checks

During August to November, inspect suitable trees and forks for nests, particularly in retained woodland and trees within or beside the work area.

Search branches and forks from 3 to 15 metres above ground for cup nests made from bark, grass, stems and other material.

Check old Magpie-lark and White-winged Chough nests where the species may reuse existing nests, and avoid disturbing an occupied nest.

Record nest location, tree location, height, occupancy, adult behaviour and the proposed protection area in the project fauna register.

Breeding period: Mainly August to November.

Nest height: 3 to 15 metres above ground.

Eggs: Usually 2 to 5 glossy olive eggs with brown or red-brown markings.

Survey methodology: Minimum effort and reporting

Use repeated searches where the species' habitat is present because it is uncommon, thinly distributed and probably nomadic, and a single negative visit should not be treated as proof of absence.

Schedule additional targeted searches during August to November where works could affect nesting trees or groups using retained habitat.

Document survey dates, start and finish times, observers, weather, methods, transect coverage, habitat condition, detections and reasons for any areas not searched.

Submit confirmed records and relevant negative survey information to the relevant state wildlife database, and provide records required by the project approval, fauna management plan and state authority.

Obtain advice from the relevant state wildlife agency where the survey effort or database for the project area is not clear.

Before habitat disturbance: Avoid and minimise

Plan around the species' use of open woodland and ground-foraging habitat. The available information does not provide species-specific buffer distances, so protection distances must be set by the project ecologist and relevant approval conditions.

Retain open woodland, arid shrubland and grassland that contains dead trees, mulga, cypress-pine or mallee-spinifex.

Retain bare or lightly vegetated ground used for feeding, as well as habitat beside watercourses, floodplains, creeks and wetlands.

Avoid increasing woody vegetation density in retained habitat where this would reduce the open structure used by the species.

Maintain connected patches of suitable retained habitat around the works rather than leaving isolated small remnants.

Identify and protect occupied nests, active breeding trees and areas repeatedly used by groups.

Before habitat disturbance: Approvals and work planning

Confirm the species' current status for the project jurisdiction before works start; it is not listed under the EPBC Act in the supplied project information and is listed as Endangered in Victoria.

Check whether state approvals, wildlife permits, nest disturbance permissions or other authorisations apply to the proposed clearing and fauna handling.

Plan the timing and staging of clearing to avoid the August to November breeding period where practicable, particularly where nesting trees will be affected.

Prepare a fauna management plan that identifies habitat to retain, survey results, exclusion zones, fauna handling arrangements, stop-work triggers, contacts and reporting requirements.

Stage clearing so that birds can move towards retained open habitat and so that the fauna spotter catcher can inspect each work area before machinery enters.

Before habitat disturbance: Pre-clearance preparation

Complete a pre-clearance inspection of the disturbance footprint and adjacent retained habitat for Ground Cuckooshrikes, groups, nests and suitable foraging areas.

Mark retained habitat, occupied nests, dead trees, water features, exclusion zones and access routes on plans and on the ground.

Install exclusion fencing where it can prevent machinery and personnel from entering retained habitat, and inspect the fencing before clearing begins.

Brief operators on the species' appearance, flight call, ground-foraging behaviour and the requirement to stop when fauna or an active nest is detected.

Confirm the names and contact details of the authorised fauna spotter catcher, project ecologist, wildlife carer and veterinarian before works begin.

During habitat disturbance: Daily clearing controls

Ground Cuckooshrikes forage on the ground and may occur in small groups, so clearing controls must cover both vegetation and open ground. A fauna spotter catcher must have clear authority to stop machinery and must remain in communication with the operator.

Inspect the active work area each day before machinery starts, including open ground, retained tree lines, dead trees, floodplain margins, wet areas and any known nest locations.

Use a fauna spotter catcher during clearing and maintain direct communication with machinery operators.

Clear in stages towards retained habitat where safe and appropriate, leaving a clear escape route and avoiding driving birds into traffic, water or active machinery.

Keep machinery within approved limits and prevent access to marked retained habitat, exclusion zones and nest protection areas.

Repeat checks after breaks, unexpected delays, changed work areas or movements of machinery into previously unchecked habitat.

During habitat disturbance: Fauna response and stop-work triggers

Stop work immediately if a Ground Cuckooshrike, an occupied nest, an injured bird or a group of birds is found in the active work area or at risk from the works.

Keep people, vehicles and machinery clear while the fauna spotter catcher assesses the bird and the project ecologist confirms the response.

Do not chase, catch or handle a healthy bird unless handling is authorised, necessary and undertaken by a suitably authorised person.

Where relocation is approved and required, move the bird only to nearby retained habitat that matches its open woodland, arid shrubland or grassland requirements.

Send an injured bird to a veterinarian or licensed wildlife carer through the authorised fauna response process.

Restart work only after the fauna spotter catcher and project ecologist have cleared the area and any required controls are in place.

During habitat disturbance: Habitat feature handling and records

Inspect trees and forks before felling, with particular attention to nests between 3 and 15 metres above ground and old Magpie-lark or White-winged Chough nests.

Do not disturb an occupied nest until the project ecologist has assessed it and all required approvals and protection controls are confirmed.

Retain logs, dead trees, lightly timbered areas and open foraging ground where they are within the approved retention area.

Treat watercourses, floodplains, creeks and wetlands as sensitive habitat and prevent spoil, machinery and sediment from entering them.

Record each fauna interaction, including date, time, location, species, number of birds, behaviour, action taken, handler, release location, injury outcome and any work delay.

Record all stop-work events, nest findings, clearing limits, incidents, relocations, veterinary transfers and corrective actions in the daily environmental records.

After habitat disturbance: Post-clearance checks

Post-clearance work should confirm that the approved footprint was followed and that retained habitat remains usable. Monitoring effort should reflect the amount of suitable habitat removed and the species' uncommon and nomadic behaviour.

Inspect the cleared area and retained edges for injured, trapped or isolated birds, disturbed nests and fauna caught behind fencing or other site controls.

Check that open foraging areas, dead trees, retained woodland, watercourse margins and wetland buffers shown in the fauna management plan remain undisturbed.

Remove temporary hazards and repair exclusion fencing or other controls that continue to be required for retained habitat.

Complete a compliance check against the approved clearing boundary, nest protection measures, fauna handling records and stop-work events.

After habitat disturbance: Monitoring and reporting

Repeat targeted diurnal searches in retained habitat where the species was recorded, where an active nest was protected or where substantial suitable habitat was cleared.

Include August to November monitoring where breeding habitat was affected, and record any adults, groups, nests, calls and use of restored or retained ground.

Interpret non-detection cautiously because the species is thinly distributed and probably nomadic.

Report results, incidents, injured fauna outcomes, nest outcomes, clearing areas and rehabilitation actions to the project environmental manager and the relevant approval authority or state wildlife database.

Apply any required offsets, compensatory habitat measures or additional monitoring specified by an approval or fauna management plan.

Rehabilitation actions: Habitat restoration

Rehabilitation should restore open, lightly timbered habitat with ground-feeding opportunities and links to retained habitat. The available documents do not specify planting densities, nest-box designs or success thresholds, so these must be set in the approved rehabilitation plan.

Re-establish open woodland, arid shrubland or grassland structure appropriate to the local reference community.

Use locally appropriate species and structure that reflect documented habitat associations, including mulga, cypress-pine or mallee-spinifex where they occur naturally at the site.

Retain or reinstate suitable dead trees and fallen woody material where safe and consistent with the rehabilitation design.

Maintain open ground and avoid dense woody regrowth that would remove the open structure used by this species.

Protect and reconnect rehabilitated areas with retained habitat, watercourses, floodplains, creeks and wetlands where these features are part of the local habitat.

Rehabilitation actions: Breeding and site management

Protect retained mature and dead trees that could provide nest sites, and assess whether artificial nest structures are appropriate only where natural nest trees cannot be retained and the project ecologist supports their use.

Manage weeds and excessive woody regeneration so rehabilitated areas remain open and lightly timbered rather than developing dense cover.

Use fire planning that maintains the local open woodland, shrubland and grassland structure and follows the relevant land manager's ecological fire requirements.

Prevent sediment, machinery access and other construction impacts from degrading adjacent watercourses, floodplains, creeks and wetlands.

Rehabilitation actions: Monitoring and success measures

Inspect rehabilitation for plant establishment, ground structure, retained or reinstated dead trees, weed cover, excessive woody density, erosion and connectivity with retained habitat.

Undertake repeat diurnal searches and call-based observations in rehabilitated and reference habitat, with additional monitoring during August to November where breeding habitat is being restored.

Record Ground Cuckooshrike sightings, groups, calls, feeding behaviour, nest use and movement between rehabilitated and retained areas.

Set measurable project targets in the rehabilitation plan for open habitat structure, weed control, protection of dead trees and habitat connectivity, and review management if those targets are not met.

Submit confirmed records to the relevant state wildlife database and retain monitoring data with the project environmental records.

Sources