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Grey-headed Flying-fox (Pteropus poliocephalus)

The Grey-headed Flying-fox is Australia's largest bat, found mainly in a coastal belt of eastern Australia from Queensland to South Australia. It roosts in camps and feeds over large areas on flowers, nectar, pollen and fruit, so clearing, camp disturbance and loss of flowering trees can affect animals well beyond a project footprint.

Conservation status

Commonwealth, EPBC Act 1999: Vulnerable.

New South Wales, Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016: Vulnerable.

Victoria, Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988: Vulnerable.

Australian Capital Territory, Nature Conservation Act 2014: Vulnerable.

Breeding season

Timing varies with flowering, fruiting and regional movement. The pattern below is a typical guide for project planning, not a substitute for checking current camp occupancy and local food resources.

Presence at a site during one survey does not reliably indicate the importance of the site, because camp occupation and foraging locations change with flowering and fruiting.

  • Breeding: Mating commences in January. Conception occurs in April or May, and births occur in October or November.
  • Young: Young are born in October and November in the main seasonal pattern. Camps are used for giving birth and rearing young.
  • Movement and camp shifts: Much of the population concentrates in northern New South Wales and Queensland during May and June to use winter-flowering trees. Animals may move several hundred kilometres as food resources change.
  • Highest clearing risk: Avoid disturbance to occupied camps, particularly from September through November, when births and early rearing occur. Food shortages and local camp use can alter risk between years.

Identification

The Grey-headed Flying-fox is a large, conspicuous flying mammal that is usually seen in camps during the day or flying out at dusk. Identification is most reliable from the grey head, russet collar and thick fur on the lower legs.

The body fur is medium to dark grey, sometimes silver, with lighter grey fur on the head and a russet collar around the neck. The back may appear frosted. The wing membranes are black and the leg fur extends to the ankles.

Identification: Size and field appearance

Adults have a head and body length of 230 to 290 mm, a forearm length of 151 to 177 mm and a weight of 600 to 1000 g. The wingspan can reach 1 m.

Head and body: 230 to 290 mm

Forearm: 151 to 177 mm

Weight: 600 to 1000 g

Wingspan: Up to 1 m

  • Look for large bats hanging in trees during the day, often in dense groups, or leaving a camp in a steady evening flight stream.
  • Daytime camps are the main field sign. Camps may contain a few animals or more than 70,000 animals.

Identification: Similar species and other signs

The thick leg fur extending to the ankle separates the Grey-headed Flying-fox from other Australian Pteropus species, whose leg fur generally extends only to the knee. It may share camps with the Black Flying-fox and Little Red Flying-fox, particularly in northern and central New South Wales and southern Queensland.

  • Do not rely on a single animal seen away from a camp, because flying-foxes can move widely in response to flowering and fruiting.
  • The supplied sources do not provide diagnostic information on calls, tracks, scats, eye shine or other ground signs.

Distribution: National range

The species is endemic to Australia and occupies a broad but mainly coastal range in eastern Australia. Its presence can vary between sites and years because animals move in response to flowering and fruiting resources.

The main range extends from southern Queensland to eastern Victoria and, rarely, South Australia. Other accounts describe the range as extending from Rockhampton or Bundaberg in Queensland to Adelaide in South Australia, generally within 200 km of the eastern coast, with regular movements inland to the western slopes of New South Wales and Queensland.

  • Queensland: coastal and south-eastern Queensland, with the northern range historically extending farther north than the current regular range described in the sources.
  • New South Wales: widespread along the coast and recorded across many inland bioregions and the western slopes.
  • Australian Capital Territory: recorded in the state or territory distribution database.
  • Victoria: eastern Victoria and the permanent Melbourne colony, with small numbers reported as far west as Warrnambool.
  • South Australia: rare records and occasional presence, including reports around Adelaide.
  • Bioregions listed for the species include the Sydney Basin, NSW North Coast, South Eastern Queensland, South East Corner, South Eastern Highlands, New England Tablelands, Brigalow Belt South, Nandewar, Darling Riverine Plains and NSW South Western Slopes.

Distribution: Strongholds and movements

Large or persistent camps occur in urban and semi-urban areas including Sydney and Melbourne. Northern New South Wales and Queensland support important winter concentrations, especially where reliable winter-flowering trees occur.

  • Some camps are occupied year round, while others are temporary or seasonal.
  • Animals can move several hundred kilometres to follow food resources. The northern range has contracted historically, while the southern range has expanded in places.

Distribution: Population and trend

The available national estimates are historical and should be treated as estimates of abundance rather than precise counts. The species was listed nationally after evidence of a substantial decline.

Estimated abundance in 1998 to 2001: More than 320,000 to 400,000 animals.

Estimated decline since 1989: About 30 percent, based on comparison of available survey estimates.

Historic population: Earlier accounts described numbers as many millions, but the sources do not provide a directly comparable historic count.

Habitat: Habitat types

Grey-headed Flying-foxes use a wide range of native and modified vegetation across subtropical and temperate eastern Australia. They need suitable canopy for camps and a changing supply of flowering and fruiting plants across the wider region.

Recorded habitat includes subtropical and temperate rainforest, tall sclerophyll forest, woodland, heath, swamps, Melaleuca stands, mangroves, riparian woodland, urban gardens and cultivated fruit crops.

  • Treat native forest, woodland, wetland vegetation and urban vegetation with mature canopy as potential habitat, even where no animals are present during a single inspection.
  • Assess habitat beyond the clearing boundary because the species can forage many kilometres from a camp.

Habitat: Structural features

Camps are usually in tall, closed vegetation with a dense canopy, often in gullies and close to streams, rivers, estuaries or other water. The species can establish camps in most types of closed vegetation more than 3 m high.

Minimum closed vegetation height reported for camp establishment: More than 3 m

Typical camp setting: Tall, closed canopy near streams, rivers or estuaries

  • Map mature canopy, riparian vegetation, Melaleuca stands, rainforest patches, mangroves and known or historic camps.
  • Retain connected vegetation around camps where practicable, because isolated patches are more exposed to disturbance and loss of feeding access.

Habitat: Climate and elevation

The species is associated mainly with coastal eastern Australia between about 20 and 28 degrees south, but it regularly moves inland to the western slopes of New South Wales and Queensland. The supplied sources do not provide a general elevation limit.

Foraging habitat: Food

The Grey-headed Flying-fox is a canopy-feeding frugivore, blossom-eater and nectarivore. It follows patchy and changing food supplies and may use native vegetation, gardens, orchards and planted trees.

The diet consists mainly of nectar and pollen from flowering eucalypts, Melaleuca and Banksia, together with fleshy fruits from subtropical rainforest trees and vines. About 100 plant species have been recorded in the diet.

  • Key documented food groups include Eucalyptus, Melaleuca and Banksia flowers, rainforest fruits and vines.
  • The species also feeds in cultivated gardens, orchards and commercial fruit crops.
  • Food availability can change sharply between places and years, particularly during drought and other resource shortages.

Foraging habitat: Foraging range and behaviour

Animals usually forage within 20 km of the camp, although individuals may travel up to 40 to 50 km and occasionally 60 to 70 km in a night. Seventy-six percent of foraging records in one study were within 20 km of the camp of origin.

Typical commuting distance: Less than 20 km

Common maximum reported: Up to 40 to 50 km

Occasional distance: 60 to 70 km per night

Foraging records within 20 km: 76 percent in the cited study

  • Inspect flowering and fruiting trees within at least the known local commuting area of a camp, not only inside the construction footprint.
  • Give particular attention to winter and spring food plants in northern New South Wales and Queensland, where reliable flowering resources have been reduced by clearing.

Breeding habitat: Breeding biology

Breeding occurs in camps, including camps used for mating, birth and rearing. Camp use is often persistent, and animals show high fidelity to traditional sites.

Annual mating commences in January. Conception occurs in April or May and a single young is born in October or November. Reproductive animals are generally six to 10 years old, although sexual maturity is reached after at least two to three years.

Mating: Commences in January.

Conception: April or May.

Births: October or November.

Litter size: Usually one young.

Sexual maturity: At least two to three years.

Average age of reproductive animals: Six to 10 years.

Gestation: The supplied documents do not state a gestation length.

Lifespan: The oldest recovered banded animal was 96 months; mean age at recovery was 40.4 months.

  • Avoid disturbance to occupied camps, particularly from September to November when young are being born and camps are used for rearing.
  • Record the number of animals, evidence of dependent young and the condition of canopy around any camp before works begin.

Breeding habitat: Breeding habitat features

Camps used for breeding are generally in tall, closed vegetation with a dense canopy, often close to water. Individual camps may contain tens of thousands of animals and may be used for more than a century.

  • Treat occupied and historically occupied camps as breeding habitat, even if animals are absent during one inspection.
  • Maintain access to nearby flowering and fruiting vegetation because breeding camps are linked to food resources across a broad area.

Sheltering habitat: Roosts and camps

The main shelter is a daytime camp in trees. Camps range from small groups to very large colonies and may be permanent, seasonal or temporary.

Roosting camps are usually in tall, closed forest or other closed vegetation, often in gullies, near streams, rivers or estuaries and under a dense canopy. Camps may occur in rainforest patches, Melaleuca stands, mangroves, riparian woodland, urban vegetation and gardens.

Reported camp size: A few individuals to more than 70,000 animals.

Closed vegetation height reported as suitable for camps: More than 3 m.

  • Search mature closed-canopy vegetation near water for hanging bats, audible activity and evening fly-out streams.
  • Check known and historic camp records before clearing or construction, because absence during a single visit does not show that a site is unimportant.
  • Some camps have been used for more than a century and individuals generally show high fidelity to traditional camps.

Sheltering habitat: Site use

Some camps are occupied year round, while many are occupied for a few weeks to several months as animals follow local flowering and fruiting. Camps are used for resting, mating, giving birth and rearing young.

  • Protect the canopy and understorey around camps from unnecessary clearing, lighting, noise and access during occupation.
  • Include nearby water and connected vegetation in the site assessment, rather than treating the camp trees as an isolated feature.

Threats: Clearing and fragmentation

The main project risks are loss of foraging or roosting habitat, disturbance of camps and direct mortality from infrastructure or poorly managed crop protection. The species has low recruitment and adult mortality can have a large population effect.

Clearing and modification of native vegetation remove camp habitat and reduce natural food, particularly reliable winter and spring feeding habitat in northern New South Wales and Queensland. Fragmentation also reduces continuity between camps and feeding areas.

  • Avoid clearing occupied or historic camps and mature food trees where practicable.
  • Map flowering and fruiting habitat across the broader project area, because animals can forage up to 40 to 50 km commonly and occasionally 60 to 70 km from a camp.
  • Retain riparian, rainforest, Melaleuca, Banksia and mature eucalypt vegetation that provides food or camp structure.

Threats: Disturbance and direct mortality

Disturbance at established camps can have a significant impact and may require consideration under the EPBC Act. Direct mortality has been associated with infrastructure, shooting, electrocution, entanglement in netting and barbed wire, and other human interactions.

  • Identify powerline blackspots and design or retrofit infrastructure to reduce collisions and electrocution risk.
  • Keep flying-foxes away from construction hazards, exposed wires, barbed wire and loose netting.
  • Do not disperse, move or shift a camp boundary without first checking Commonwealth and state requirements.

Threats: Fire, heat and disease concerns

Inappropriate fire regimes can cause direct mortality and remove key habitat. Extreme heat events associated with climate change can also cause direct mortality. The NSW determination identifies flying-foxes as possible carriers of viral pathogens, but the supplied documents do not establish disease as a measured project impact.

  • Avoid fire planning or hazard reduction that removes camp canopy or key feeding habitat without ecological assessment.
  • Use current public health and wildlife handling procedures when working near camps or injured animals.
  • Use trained fauna handlers for any animal rescue, exclusion or relocation work.

Threats: Population sensitivity

The species has a low rate of recruitment, reaches sexual maturity after at least two to three years and generally produces one young each year. Sustained additional adult mortality can increase the risk of population decline.

  • Treat repeated disturbance, loss of occupied camps and cumulative removal of food trees as population-level risks, even where each individual activity appears small.
  • Plan works outside the September to November birth period where practicable.

Survey methodology: 1. Camp and records search

Survey this species by locating camps and assessing feeding habitat, rather than relying on animal sightings alone. Presence changes with flowering, fruiting, drought and other food conditions, so a single negative survey does not show that habitat is unused.

Before fieldwork, search authoritative databases and local records for current and historic camps in the project area and the wider surrounding area.

Contact relevant state environment agencies, local councils, parks staff, orchardists, apiarists and forestry workers who may know camp locations and seasonal movements.

Map camps, likely roost vegetation, watercourses, estuaries and connected native vegetation before finalising the survey area.

Survey methodology: 2. Feeding habitat assessment

Complete a vegetation survey across the project area and assess the contribution of the site to feeding habitat in the surrounding area.

Record native food plants, particularly Eucalyptus, Melaleuca and Banksia, rainforest fruiting plants, flowering trees, cultivated fruit trees and gardens.

Assess habitat within at least the distances documented for this species: individuals commonly forage within 20 km of a camp, can travel up to 50 km, and have occasionally travelled 60 to 70 km in a night.

Repeat or time the assessment to account for seasonal and annual changes in flowering and fruiting, because a site used in one year may not be visited in the next.

Typical commuting distance: Less than 20 km from the camp

Recorded foraging distance: Up to 50 km, with occasional records of 60 to 70 km per night

Recorded camp size: From a few individuals to over 70,000 animals

Survey methodology: 3. Camp and roost inspection

Inspect suitable roost vegetation, including tall closed forest near streams, rivers or estuaries, rainforest patches, Melaleuca stands, mangroves, riparian woodland and modified urban vegetation.

Look for occupied or recently used camps in vegetation with a dense canopy, usually near water and within about 20 km of a regular food source.

Record camp extent, estimated use, vegetation condition, nearby food plants, water features, access routes and the distance to the proposed disturbance.

Avoid disturbing occupied camps, particularly from September to November, when the NSW profile identifies this period for roost-site protection.

Typical camp setting: Tall closed forest near streams, rivers or estuaries

Roosting habitat distance from regular food: Generally within 20 km

Birth period: October or November

Recommended disturbance avoidance period: September to November

Survey methodology: 4. Spotlighting and incidental observations

Do not use spotlighting or casual animal sightings as the sole presence or absence test, because the species occupies its range irregularly and moves in response to food production.

If night observations are undertaken, record the date, start and finish time, weather, flowering and fruiting conditions, camp activity, flight paths, feeding behaviour and all nearby habitat features.

The supplied survey guideline does not prescribe a number of nights, hours, transects or trap nights for this species; set any additional effort through the project risk assessment and consultation with the relevant authority.

Survey methodology: Minimum effort and reporting

  • Search current and historic camp records for the project area and its wider surrounding area before fieldwork.
  • Complete and document a vegetation and feeding-habitat survey for the whole project area.
  • Assess the project's food plants and roost habitat in relation to the surrounding area, not just within the clearing footprint.
  • Record the survey dates, observers, methods, weather, flowering and fruiting conditions, camp locations, habitat maps, limitations and all species records.
  • Submit confirmed records and camp observations to the relevant state wildlife database and notify the relevant state environment agency where required.
  • Treat the species as present or potentially present where suitable roosting or feeding habitat occurs, unless the project authority accepts a different conclusion based on documented evidence.

Before habitat disturbance: Avoid and minimise habitat loss

Plan the project around occupied camps, food resources and connected roosting habitat. The species is nationally listed as Vulnerable, and activities likely to have a significant impact require consideration under the EPBC Act as well as applicable state law.

Retain occupied and historic camps wherever practicable, including tall closed canopy vegetation near water.

Retain native feeding plants, especially flowering Eucalyptus, Melaleuca and Banksia, rainforest fruiting plants and connected riparian vegetation.

Avoid clearing or fragmenting habitat that links camps with regular feeding areas.

Keep construction activity, lighting, noise and access routes away from camps where practicable, with site-specific separation distances set through the impact assessment and approval conditions.

Do not assume that an unoccupied camp is unimportant, because most camps are temporary or seasonal and use changes with food availability.

Before habitat disturbance: Check approvals and permits

Assess whether the proposed clearing, camp disturbance, habitat modification, noise deterrence or change to a camp boundary is likely to have a significant impact on the nationally listed species.

Refer the action to the Australian Government where required under the EPBC Act, and obtain all required state or territory approvals before work starts.

Check state legislation and permit requirements before killing or injuring flying-foxes, interfering with a camp, dispersing animals or modifying roost habitat.

Use the relevant state environment agency for current advice, because distribution maps and threatened species listings can change.

National status: Vulnerable under the EPBC Act

EPBC referral matters identified in the source: Camp dispersal, shifting camp boundaries, and clearing important roosting or feeding habitat

Before habitat disturbance: Plan the works

Prepare a fauna management plan that maps camps, roost habitat, feeding plants, water features, access routes, exclusion zones, stop-work triggers and authorised contacts.

Schedule clearing and high-noise work to avoid occupied camps and the September to November period identified for roost-site protection.

Stage clearing so retained vegetation and movement routes remain available while work proceeds.

Include procedures for unexpected camp occupation, heat events, injured animals, entanglement and contact with infrastructure or netting.

Brief machinery operators and the fauna spotter catcher before each work stage.

Before habitat disturbance: Prepare the site

Complete the pre-clearance survey immediately before clearing and confirm that camp locations, food plants and exclusion zones have not changed.

Mark retained trees, riparian vegetation, camps, feeding plants, exclusion zones and access boundaries in the field and on the construction drawings.

Install exclusion fencing only where it will protect retained habitat without blocking movement to roosting or feeding areas.

Remove or modify hazards identified in the plan, including unsafe netting, barbed wire and powerline risks, through appropriately authorised personnel.

During habitat disturbance: Daily controls

The fauna spotter catcher must control the clearing interface and have authority to stop work. Flying-foxes are colonial, mobile and capable of occupying modified vegetation, so active observation and communication are needed even where no camp was recorded before work.

Inspect the work area, exclusion zones, retained vegetation, camps and access routes at the start of each shift and after any work stoppage.

Check for changed camp use, flying-foxes in trees, injured animals, entanglement hazards, exposed roost vegetation and new flowering or fruiting resources.

Keep machinery, workers, vehicles and lighting outside marked exclusion zones unless the fauna spotter catcher has cleared the activity under the approved plan.

Use non-lethal controls and do not shoot, electrocute, harass, disperse or handle flying-foxes unless authorised by the relevant approval and qualified personnel.

Increase supervision during hot weather, because extreme heat events can cause direct mortality.

During habitat disturbance: Fauna spotter catcher and machinery interface

Place the fauna spotter catcher where the entire clearing face, tree crowns and escape routes can be observed safely.

Maintain direct communication between the spotter catcher, machine operator, supervisor and ecologist throughout clearing.

Clear vegetation in stages from the approved retained boundary towards the already disturbed area, where this is safe and consistent with the fauna management plan.

Stop the machine before the spotter catcher enters the exclusion zone, investigates a tree or directs a change in the clearing sequence.

Do not allow machinery to commence, resume or work beneath an occupied camp without the required approval and explicit clearance under the management plan.

During habitat disturbance: Habitat feature handling

Protect tall closed canopy, riparian vegetation, rainforest patches, Melaleuca stands, mangroves, urban roost vegetation and native food trees identified during the survey.

Treat flowering and fruiting trees as feeding habitat even if no flying-foxes are present at the time of clearing.

Retain watercourses, streams, rivers and estuaries associated with roosting or feeding habitat and prevent sediment, dust, noise and lighting impacts where required by the plan.

The supplied documents do not identify hollow trees, logs, rocks, burrows or nest boxes as Grey-headed Flying-fox shelter features; manage these features for other fauna values under the project's broader fauna plan.

Do not remove or trim camp vegetation, create buffers, plant non-roost species or modify habitat near a camp unless the action has been assessed and approved as required.

During habitat disturbance: If an animal is found

Stop work and keep workers, machinery and the public away from the animal.

Do not catch, restrain, transport or release a flying-fox unless the person is authorised, trained and acting under the permit, approval and fauna management plan.

Have the fauna spotter catcher contact the project ecologist and the relevant wildlife authority or licensed wildlife carer for an animal that is injured, grounded, heat affected or entangled.

Send injured animals to an appropriately authorised veterinarian or wildlife carer, rather than attempting treatment on site.

Release a fit animal only where the authorised handler and relevant approval specify a nearby retained habitat area that is suitable, safe and connected to the animal's habitat.

During habitat disturbance: Stop-work triggers and records

  • Stop work for any flying-fox found within the clearing area, any occupied camp within the impact zone, an injured or entangled animal, unexpected camp establishment, loss of the approved escape route, or a breach of an exclusion zone.
  • Stop work during conditions that create an immediate animal welfare risk, including extreme heat or unsafe smoke and fire conditions.
  • Record the date, time, location, activity, animal condition, species identification, photographs where lawful, people involved, advice received, action taken and restart approval.
  • Report mortality, injury, handling, relocation, camp disturbance and approval breaches to the project ecologist, approval holder and relevant authority in accordance with the approvals.

After habitat disturbance: Post-clearance inspection

Post-clearance work must confirm that retained camps, feeding habitat and movement routes remain usable. Monitoring should continue through seasonal changes because camp occupation and food resources are variable.

Inspect the full clearing boundary, retained vegetation, nearby camps, riparian areas and access routes after each clearing stage and at completion.

Check for injured or dead flying-foxes, abandoned or damaged camp trees, severed movement routes, new hazards and damage to retained food plants.

Confirm that sediment, dust, lighting, noise and construction access are not affecting retained roosting or feeding habitat beyond the approved limits.

Update the camp and habitat map if animals establish a new camp or use a retained area differently from the pre-work assessment.

After habitat disturbance: Monitoring and reporting

Monitor retained camps and feeding habitat during periods of flowering, fruiting and seasonal movement identified in the fauna management plan.

Use camp records, habitat condition, animal activity, injury or mortality records and changes in food plants to assess project impacts.

Continue monitoring through the approved construction and operational periods where the project affects a camp, regular feeding area or movement route.

Submit required reports and records to the approval authority and relevant state wildlife database, including updated camp locations and confirmed mortality or injury records.

After habitat disturbance: Maintain controls and offsets

Keep exclusion fencing, lighting controls, access restrictions, retained vegetation protection and hazard controls in place for as long as specified in the fauna management plan or approval.

Repair damaged fencing and reinstate any lost buffer or movement route before the next work stage.

Implement approved offsets or compensatory habitat actions where residual impacts remain after avoidance and mitigation.

Use offsets to protect or restore suitable roosting and feeding habitat, with locations and actions supported by the impact assessment and approval.

Rehabilitation actions: Restore roosting and feeding habitat

Rehabilitation should restore feeding habitat, roosting vegetation, water-associated canopy and connections between retained areas. It should also address weeds, fire and infrastructure hazards that can reduce habitat quality or directly kill animals.

Plant locally appropriate native canopy and midstorey species that provide nectar, pollen and fruit, with emphasis on Eucalyptus, Melaleuca and Banksia and suitable rainforest fruiting plants.

Restore tall, dense canopy near streams, rivers, estuaries and other water features where this matches the site's pre-disturbance vegetation.

Create connected native vegetation between retained roosting areas and feeding habitat instead of isolated planting patches.

Do not plant species intended to attract a new camp beside houses, roads or active work areas without assessing the likely camp and conflict risks.

Rehabilitation actions: Manage habitat condition and hazards

Control weeds and protect natural regeneration in retained and revegetated areas.

Manage fire regimes so that inappropriate fire does not cause direct mortality or remove key habitat, while following the applicable fire authority and ecological advice.

Remove or redesign dangerous netting and barbed wire near roosting and feeding habitat, and identify powerline blackspots for approved mitigation.

Do not install hollows, nest boxes, logs or rocks as Grey-headed Flying-fox measures unless they are required for other fauna or broader habitat objectives, because the supplied species documents do not identify them as this species' roost requirements.

Maintain water quality and natural drainage around restored streams, rivers, estuaries, wetlands and riparian vegetation.

Rehabilitation actions: Monitoring and success measures

Monitor plant survival, canopy development, weed cover, fire impacts, water condition, connectivity and the condition of retained roosting vegetation.

Record flowering and fruiting of planted and retained food species and compare use of the restored area with the pre-work habitat assessment.

Monitor nearby camps and feeding activity during different seasons, because occupation and food availability vary between years.

Set project-specific success measures in the rehabilitation plan, such as survival of planted native food trees, increasing canopy cover, stable retained camp vegetation, maintained movement connections and no project-related injury or mortality.

Submit monitoring results, failures and corrective actions to the approval holder and relevant authority.

Sources