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Green-and-Golden Bell Frog (Ranoidea aurea)

The green-and-golden bell frog is a large, ground-dwelling frog that breeds in shallow, still or slow-flowing freshwater. In Australia it is native to coastal and near-coastal south-eastern Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and the Australian Capital Territory, but has lost much of its former range. On development sites, temporary ponds, drainage depressions, wet grass, dense ground cover and movement routes between wetlands can all support the species.

Conservation status

Commonwealth, EPBC Act 1999: Vulnerable.

Breeding season

Breeding and calling usually occur from October to March in warm, shallow water. Eggs, tadpoles and metamorphs can overlap for much of the year because tadpole development may take 10 to 12 weeks or up to a year, so clearing near water and winter shelter needs seasonal checks.

Reproductive mode: Oviparous. Females lay eggs that are externally fertilised in water.

Clutch size: About 3,000 to 10,000 eggs, usually in a large gelatinous mass.

Incubation: Tadpoles hatch after about 2 to 5 days.

Size at hatching or birth: Newly hatched tadpoles are about 5 to 6 mm long.

Age at maturity: Males mature at about 9 to 12 months. Females mature at about 2 years.

Nest or egg sites: Egg masses are laid in ponds and slow-flowing streams, among aquatic or emergent vegetation. Suitable breeding water is generally shallow, warm, still or slow moving, freshwater and exposed to sunlight.

Breeding frequency: Not recorded.

Confirm timing at each site using local rainfall and water temperature, noting that breeding generally requires water temperatures of about 20 °C or more and that conditions can vary between southern, highland, northern and lowland populations.

  • Calling: Males call around ponds and slow-flowing streams during the warmer breeding period, usually October to March. Calling is recorded as peaking in December to February, with March calling also recorded.
  • Egg laying: Egg laying occurs during the October to March breeding period. Females deposit gelatinous egg masses in water, commonly among aquatic or emergent vegetation; the masses initially float and sink after about 6 to 12 hours.
  • Tadpoles: Tadpoles are expected from shortly after October to March spawning, and may remain in water throughout the year where development is slow. Development usually takes 10 to 12 weeks, but can take 2 to 11 months or up to a year.
  • Metamorphs: Metamorphs may occur in any month because tadpole development can take 2 to 11 months or up to a year. Metamorphs are about 22 to 28 mm snout to vent length when they leave the aquatic stage.
  • Active period: Adults are active during warm weather and after rain, and may move between water and nearby terrestrial habitat. Activity is generally reduced from May to August, although suitable warm or wet periods can interrupt winter inactivity.
  • Winter inactivity: Frogs commonly enter torpor or become inactive during the cooler months, particularly May to August. They may shelter in leaf litter, reeds, dense ground cover, rocks or debris near water, and can become active during warm weather or after rain.
  • Highest clearing risk: Risk is highest from October to March because calling adults, egg masses, tadpoles and metamorphs may be present around breeding water. Clearing from May to August can also harm torpid frogs in leaf litter, ground cover, rocks and debris, while draining or dewatering can affect larvae for up to a year.

Identification

This is a large, conspicuously marked frog that is usually found on the ground around water. It can be active during the day as well as at night, particularly when basking, moving between wetlands or calling during warm weather.

Adults have smooth upper skin, usually green to bright green with bronze, gold or brown markings. A pale cream or yellowish stripe runs from behind the eye towards the groin and is bordered below by a dark line. A second pale stripe may run from below the eye towards the front leg.

The belly is pale. The groin and inner thighs are typically bright blue or blue-green. The rear feet are webbed, the front feet lack webbing, and small toe pads are present. The tympanum is obvious and the pupil is horizontally oriented.

The species is a ground-dwelling member of the tree frog family. It can climb into vegetation to about 2 m, but it is not normally a tree-dwelling frog.

Males: Usually about 60 mm snout to vent length. The throat may become grey to yellowish brown, and breeding males develop dark nuptial pads on the thumbs.

Females: Usually substantially larger than males and may reach 90 mm or more.

Tadpoles: Newly hatched tadpoles are dark olive to black. Near metamorphosis they become greener, with a translucent tail that may have a yellowish tinge.

Identification: Distinguishing similar frogs

The green-and-golden bell frog lacks the thin, light green mid-dorsal stripe that is usually present on the southern bell frog. Its skin is smooth rather than warty.

The growling grass frog is similar in general appearance but has raised bumps on the dorsal surface. The large blue inner thighs, pale bordered side stripe and smooth back are useful features when assessing a suspected green-and-golden bell frog.

Identification: Field signs and handling

The most useful field sign is the male call, a deep, guttural three to four syllable croak. Calling males may form choruses around suitable breeding ponds.

Other signs include frogs basking on pond margins, moving through wet grass or debris, and blue inner thighs flashing when a frog jumps. Tadpoles may form aggregations in breeding ponds.

There are no documented tracks, scats, nests, sloughs or eyeshine features that reliably identify this species. Inspect wet ground cover, pond margins and emergent vegetation rather than relying on terrestrial sign.

  • Use clean, wet gloves and follow amphibian hygiene procedures when capturing or moving frogs.
  • Record the call, exact waterbody, surrounding ground cover and direction of movement for each observation.
  • Do not identify an individual from colour alone. Photograph the back, side stripe, inner thigh, feet and tympanum where safe to do so.

Distribution: States and regions

In Australia, the species is native to south-eastern Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and the Australian Capital Territory. Its remaining Australian distribution is concentrated mainly along the coast and in lowland areas, with substantial historical losses from inland and upland sites.

The former Australian range extended from the Brisbane region through coastal New South Wales to East Gippsland in Victoria, and inland to Bathurst, Tumut and the Australian Capital Territory.

Current records are mainly from coastal and near-coastal New South Wales and eastern Victoria, with additional populations in the Australian Capital Territory and south-eastern Queensland. The source material does not assign the species to named Australian bioregions.

Former range: From Brunswick Heads or the Brisbane region south to East Gippsland, and west to Bathurst, Tumut and the Australian Capital Territory.

Current range loss: The species has disappeared from an estimated 90% of its former range.

Elevation limit: In New South Wales it has disappeared from highland areas above 250 m, except for a population at Captains Flat.

  • Queensland: the southern and south-eastern part of the former range, extending north to about the Brisbane region.
  • New South Wales: coastal and near-coastal populations from the Byron Bay and Grafton region southwards, including the Sydney region, Shoalhaven and mid-north coast. The species has declined severely in New South Wales.
  • Victoria: eastern Victoria and East Gippsland, with coastal and lowland populations.
  • Australian Capital Territory: part of the former inland range and one of the areas where the species still occurs.

Distribution: Strongholds and trend

Known strongholds and notable subpopulations include parts of metropolitan Sydney, the Shoalhaven, the New South Wales mid-north coast, eastern Victoria and East Gippsland. The Sydney Olympic Park Brickpit population is a well-known example of a population using disturbed industrial land.

The species has undergone major declines in Australia since about the 1960s, particularly in New South Wales and at inland or upland sites. Populations are often small and fragmented.

Known Australian sites: About 40 sites were reported in the source material, most in the Sydney area.

Larger populations: Six populations of more than 300 frogs were reported in New South Wales, including two in metropolitan Sydney, two in the Shoalhaven and two on the mid-north coast.

Typical small populations: Many coastal New South Wales populations contained fewer than 20 adults.

Conservation status: Vulnerable under the EPBC Act, with major declines recorded across the native Australian range.

Habitat: Wetland types

The green-and-golden bell frog uses a wide range of modified and natural habitats, but remains closely tied to suitable freshwater. Habitat is usually a mosaic of breeding water, sunny margins, wet or grassy feeding areas and nearby cover for shelter.

Suitable sites include shallow temporary ponds, permanent ponds, slow-flowing streams, swamps, roadside drains, quarries, farm dams, urban wetlands, disused industrial land, brick pits, landfill areas and wetland margins.

The species generally favours still or slow-moving freshwater that is shallow, open to sunlight and supports emergent vegetation such as reeds or rushes. It is less associated with fast-flowing streams.

  • Check temporary depressions that hold water after rain, even when they are dry at the time of the survey.
  • Inspect pond margins, reed beds, rushes, wet grass, low shrubs, leaf litter and debris within at least several hundred metres of breeding water.
  • Treat artificial wetlands and drainage structures as potential habitat where fish are absent and suitable cover is present.

Habitat: Structural features

Preferred breeding sites have emergent vegetation for calling, egg laying and cover, with open sunny water that can warm quickly. Nearby grass and low ground cover provide terrestrial feeding habitat.

Winter habitat includes leaf litter, debris and other refuges close to breeding water. Frogs may also use vegetation above ground level and have been recorded up to about 2 m above the ground.

Distance from water: Adults can occur up to about 400 m from water.

Use of vegetation: Frogs are usually near ground level but may climb to about 2 m in vegetation.

  • Retain connected wetland margins, dense ground cover, logs, leaf litter, reeds and rushes around occupied or potential ponds.
  • Avoid removing all vegetation from pond edges. The species uses a combination of open sunlit water and vegetated margins.
  • Inspect habitat beyond the waterline because adults may occur up to 400 m from water and may travel several kilometres between suitable areas.

Habitat: Climate and elevation

Activity and breeding are associated with warm weather and rain. During winter, frogs become less active and may enter torpor, but can move during suitable warm or wet periods.

The species has been lost from most New South Wales sites above 250 m, apart from Captains Flat. The source material suggests that warmer conditions may allow the distribution to extend further south.

Recorded inland limit: Formerly reached Bathurst, Tumut and the Australian Capital Territory.

Highland decline: Most New South Wales populations above 250 m have disappeared, except at Captains Flat.

Foraging habitat: Adult diet

Adults are opportunistic predators and forage on the ground, around wetland margins and in nearby grass or low vegetation. Tadpoles feed within the water column and pond substrate.

Adult frogs eat a wide range of invertebrates and small vertebrates. Recorded prey includes mosquito larvae, beetles, slugs, earthworms, freshwater invertebrates, small crayfish, frogs, geckos and skinks.

Cannibalism occurs, particularly when frogs or tadpoles are concentrated. The species has also been recorded eating other frog species and threatened skinks.

Foraging distance: Frogs may forage up to about 400 m from water.

Movement between habitats: Individuals may move up to 3 km between suitable habitats. Marked frogs have been found up to 5 km from their previous location.

  • Assess wet grass, pond margins, leaf litter, reeds, low vegetation and debris as foraging habitat.
  • Do not assume that a dry area is unused. Adults may feed and move on land well away from the breeding pond.
  • Retain insect-rich ground cover and avoid unnecessary chemical treatment of wetland margins.

Foraging habitat: Tadpole feeding

Tadpoles feed on algae, detritus, bacteria and small freshwater invertebrates. In crowded ponds they may become more carnivorous and cannibalise other tadpoles.

Tadpole production is strongly affected by fish, salinity, water temperature and the duration of ponding.

  • Inspect shallow pond edges and submerged vegetation for tadpole aggregations.
  • Prevent sediment, pollutants and saline water from entering breeding ponds.
  • Keep introduced predatory fish out of breeding water where practicable.

Breeding habitat: Breeding biology

Breeding occurs in warm months, usually from October to March. Males call from ponds and slow-flowing water, and females lay large gelatinous egg masses in or among aquatic vegetation.

Breeding season: October to March.

Mating: Amplexus may last from about 10 minutes to 5 days. Males use breeding nuptial pads on the thumbs to grip females.

Clutch size: About 3,000 to 10,000 eggs, usually in a large gelatinous mass.

Egg incubation: Tadpoles hatch after about 2 to 5 days.

Tadpole period: Usually about 10 to 12 weeks, but development can take up to a year.

Metamorph size: About 22 to 28 mm snout to vent length.

Age at maturity: Males mature at about 9 to 12 months. Females mature at about 2 years.

Lifespan: Up to 15 years in captivity. Wild lifespan is not known.

Gestation: Not applicable. The species lays externally fertilised eggs.

Breeding habitat: Breeding site features

Breeding water is generally shallow, warm, still or slow moving, freshwater and exposed to sunlight. Temporary ponds are often suitable because they can warm quickly and may lack predatory fish.

Egg masses are initially buoyant and usually sink after about 6 to 12 hours. Tadpoles need water that remains present long enough for development, which may range from about 10 weeks to a year.

Salinity affects larval growth and survival. Salinity of 8 parts per thousand or more reduces growth and increases mortality in the cited material.

Water temperature: Breeding generally occurs where water temperatures reach about 20 degrees Celsius or more.

Egg mass timing: Egg masses sink after about 6 to 12 hours.

Larval sensitivity: Mosquitofish prey on eggs and larvae. High salinity can cause breeding failure and population crashes.

  • Inspect all shallow ponds, drains, farm dams, quarry ponds and temporary pools during the October to March breeding period.
  • Search emergent reeds and rushes, pond margins and submerged vegetation for egg masses and tadpoles.
  • Maintain natural water depth and ponding duration. Avoid draining, filling or isolating breeding ponds during egg and tadpole development.
  • Check for Gambusia and other predatory fish before relying on a waterbody as suitable breeding habitat.

Sheltering habitat: Ground refuges

Shelter is mainly at ground level near water, in vegetation, leaf litter and debris. Frogs may also shelter above ground in dense vegetation and become torpid during cold periods.

Suitable refuges include reeds, rushes, wet grass, leaf litter, fallen debris and other dense cover around ponds and streams. Frogs may rest at the edges of water or move into nearby terrestrial habitat.

The species is also found in urban, industrial, agricultural and roadside settings where water and ground cover remain available.

  • Inspect under and beside logs, sheets of debris, dense grass, leaf litter, reeds, rushes and low vegetation before clearing.
  • Search both the wetland edge and adjacent terrestrial habitat because frogs may be hundreds of metres from water.
  • Retain connected shelter between ponds and feeding areas wherever practicable.

Sheltering habitat: Seasonal shelter

During winter, frogs are less active and may enter torpor. They become active again during warm weather or after rain.

No species-specific den, burrow, hollow or refuge dimensions are provided in the source material. Shelter should therefore be assessed by cover, moisture, proximity to water and evidence of frog use.

Above-ground shelter: Frogs may occur up to about 2 m above ground in vegetation.

Known refuge types: Reeds, debris, leaf litter, ground vegetation and other cover near water.

  • Treat dense ground cover and debris as potential winter refuges during cold-weather clearing.
  • Do not assume that a quiet or inactive frog is absent. Check sheltered locations during pre-clearance searches.
  • Where frogs are relocated, provide moist cover close to suitable water and avoid exposing them to direct sun or dry ground.

Threats: Clearing and fragmentation

The main Australian threats are loss and fragmentation of wetland habitat, introduced predatory fish, chytrid disease, altered hydrology, pollution and introduced predators. Development can affect frogs directly by removing shelter and breeding water, and indirectly by severing movement routes.

Clearing of ponds, wetland margins, grass, reeds, leaf litter and debris can remove breeding, feeding and sheltering habitat. Fragmentation is especially important because frogs may move up to 3 km between suitable habitats.

Infrastructure and altered land use have contributed to habitat loss and the decline of populations in New South Wales. A site can remain occupied even where the surrounding land is industrial, urban or highly modified.

  • Survey the full wetland to terrestrial habitat mosaic, not only permanent water.
  • Map ponds, drains, wet depressions, shelter patches and likely movement routes before clearing.
  • Stage clearing from retained habitat towards already cleared areas, with fauna spotters checking disturbed cover as it is removed.
  • Avoid creating isolated ponds without terrestrial cover or movement connections.

Threats: Hydrology, salinity and pollution

Drainage, filling, altered pond duration and changes in water quality can prevent eggs and tadpoles from completing development. Tadpoles are particularly sensitive to salinity and contaminated water.

Herbicides and other pollutants are identified as threats. Sediment, concrete washout, fuels and other construction contaminants should be kept out of breeding water.

Salinity threshold: Salinity of 8 parts per thousand or more reduces tadpole growth and increases mortality in the cited material.

Breeding failure: High salinity can cause larval failure and population crashes.

  • Prevent uncontrolled dewatering, diversion or infilling of potential breeding ponds during October to March.
  • Maintain freshwater inflows and avoid concentrating saline runoff in ponds or drains.
  • Use sediment, erosion and pollution controls around all potential breeding water.
  • Inspect downstream ponds after rainfall and construction runoff events.

Threats: Introduced fish and predators

Mosquitofish, Gambusia holbrooki, prey on eggs and larvae and can exclude bell frogs from otherwise suitable waterbodies. Other introduced or predatory fish also reduce tadpole survival.

Cats and foxes are identified as predators of frogs. Native birds, snakes, turtles, fish and aquatic invertebrates also prey on adults or tadpoles.

  • Inspect potential breeding water for Gambusia and other predatory fish before works begin.
  • Do not transfer water, aquatic plants, sediment or fish between wetlands.
  • Control access by domestic cats and manage fox impacts where this forms part of the approved project controls.

Threats: Disease and fire

Chytridiomycosis, caused by Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, has caused major declines in native and introduced populations. Signs can include reddened belly skin, abnormal skin shedding, unusual posture, failure to move away from disturbance and loss of the righting reflex.

The supplied sources do not identify fire as a measured cause of decline for this species. Fire planning should nevertheless retain moist refuges, unburnt ground cover and wetland vegetation where these are part of the approved habitat management approach.

  • Apply amphibian hygiene procedures between waterbodies and equipment, including cleaning and disinfecting boots, nets, buckets and other wet equipment.
  • Do not move frogs, tadpoles, water, sediment or aquatic plants between sites unless authorised under the relevant procedure.
  • After fire or vegetation treatment, inspect remaining wet refuges, debris and pond margins before further clearing.

Threats: Roads and movement routes

The source material documents movement between waterbodies and habitat fragmentation but does not quantify road mortality for this species. Roads and construction corridors should therefore be treated as potential barriers or mortality points wherever they cross wetland to terrestrial movement routes.

Warm, wet periods and the breeding season are the most likely times for frogs to be moving between ponds and shelter or feeding areas.

  • Check road verges, culverts, drains and wet depressions during pre-clearance surveys.
  • Use approved exclusion, salvage and traffic controls where works intersect known movement routes.
  • Keep temporary lighting, vehicle access and open trenches away from occupied wetland margins where practicable.

Survey methodology: 1. Habitat assessment and diurnal searches

Survey this frog around freshwater habitats and connected terrestrial areas. The species is semi-aquatic, mainly associated with ponds, slow-flowing streams, wetlands, ditches and other still or slow water, but adults may travel up to 3 km between suitable habitats and can occur up to 400 m from water.

Map all freshwater features, wet depressions, drainage lines, emergent vegetation, grassed feeding areas, refuges and movement routes within and adjoining the work area.

Search pond margins, reeds, litter, logs, rocks, dense groundcover and structures near water during the day, when this species may bask or move between habitats.

Inspect connected terrestrial habitat because adults can occur up to 400 m from water and may move up to 3 km between suitable habitats.

Breeding period in Australia: October to March

Distance recorded from water: Up to 400 m

Movement between suitable habitats: Up to 3 km

  • Record waterbody type, permanence, salinity indicators, emergent vegetation, fish presence, surrounding cover and links to other wetlands.
  • Give particular attention to shallow, still, sunlit freshwater ponds with emergent vegetation and nearby terrestrial cover.
  • Do not treat disturbed land, quarries, roadside ditches, farmland or urban wetlands as unsuitable without inspection, because the species uses these habitats.

Survey methodology: 2. Night spotlighting and call surveys

Conduct night searches during the warmer breeding period, from October to March, when males congregate around water and call.

Walk or slowly inspect the full accessible margin of each pond, wetland, slow-flowing stream and drainage feature with a spotlight, recording frogs by location and habitat.

Listen for the deep, guttural three to four syllable male call and record calling locations, chorus size and whether frogs are calling from water, reeds or adjacent ground.

Typical call: Deep guttural three to four syllable croak

Preferred survey period: October to March

Winter activity: Reduced, except during suitable warm weather or after rain

  • Repeat searches on suitable warm or wet nights because adults are less active during winter except during warm weather or after rain.
  • Record the date, start and finish time, weather, recent rain, air and water conditions where measured, observer names, route length or area searched and the proportion of the habitat that was accessible.
  • Use separate records for visual detections, calls, tadpoles, egg masses and signs of predatory fish.

Survey methodology: 3. Tadpole and egg-mass searches

Inspect shallow water, emergent vegetation and pond edges for gelatinous egg masses and tadpole aggregations during the breeding period.

Use a suitable aquatic search method, such as visual inspection and dip-netting where permitted, to sample representative shallow margins without damaging egg masses or larvae.

Identify and record tadpoles by life stage, colour, size, abundance category and location, noting that tadpoles can remain present for about 10 to 12 weeks and sometimes up to a year.

Eggs per clutch: About 3,000 to 10,000

Egg hatch time: About 2 to 5 days

Typical tadpole period: About 10 to 12 weeks, sometimes up to a year

Tadpole size near metamorphosis: Up to about 100 mm

  • Search temporary and permanent waterbodies, but give priority to shallow, still, freshwater sites without predatory fish.
  • Check for mosquitofish and other predatory fish because Gambusia holbrooki can prey on eggs and larvae and may exclude the species from otherwise suitable waterbodies.
  • Record salinity where breeding habitat may be affected by coastal influence, dewatering, discharge or road runoff.

Survey methodology: 4. Survey effort and detection limits

No species-specific Australian survey guideline or fixed effort standard is provided in the supplied documents, so set effort using the size and habitat complexity of the site, the extent of proposed disturbance and the likelihood of breeding habitat being affected.

Use more than one method where suitable habitat is present, combining habitat assessment, day searches, night spotlighting and aquatic searches rather than relying on a single visit.

Treat a non-detection as inconclusive where access was limited, weather was unsuitable, breeding habitat was dry, fish were present or the survey did not cover connected terrestrial habitat.

  • State the number of survey nights, hours searched per night, observers, transect or shoreline length, aquatic sample points, area searched and all access constraints in the report.
  • Repeat surveys when works span different seasons or when a first survey is undertaken outside October to March.
  • Submit confirmed records, including negative survey coverage where required, to the relevant state or territory wildlife database and project environmental record system.
  • Report coordinates, date, life stage, evidence type, habitat, photographs, call recordings and identification confidence with each record.

Before habitat disturbance: Avoid and minimise habitat loss

Plan the works around the frog's dependence on freshwater breeding sites and nearby terrestrial refuge and feeding habitat. Avoid removing or isolating ponds, wetland edges, emergent vegetation and movement routes where practicable.

Retain shallow, still or slow-flowing freshwater habitats, emergent vegetation, nearby grassed cover and ground refuges such as litter, logs and rocks.

Maintain connected habitat between waterbodies and retained terrestrial areas because adults may travel up to 3 km between suitable habitats.

Avoid changes that increase salinity, introduce predatory fish or remove the warm, shallow conditions used for breeding.

  • Keep construction compounds, stockpiles, access tracks, sediment ponds and lighting away from retained wetlands and their connecting ground habitat.
  • Do not fill, drain, contaminate or isolate suitable ponds unless the approval and fauna management plan specifically address the impact.
  • Retain alternative wet and terrestrial habitat before clearing any occupied or potentially occupied area.

Before habitat disturbance: Approvals and work planning

Confirm the EPBC Act requirements because the species is listed as Vulnerable in the project brief, and obtain any applicable state or territory wildlife, clearing, threatened species and animal handling approvals before works begin.

Prepare a fauna management plan that identifies survey results, habitat to be retained, exclusion areas, aquatic protection controls, fauna handling authority, stop-work triggers and reporting responsibilities.

Schedule the highest-risk wetland disturbance outside the October to March breeding period where practicable, while recognising that adults may be active outside that period during warm or wet conditions.

  • Include the species, its breeding habitat, terrestrial habitat and movement routes in the project's environmental risk assessment.
  • Stage clearing so retained habitat remains available and connected until the disturbed area has been checked and fauna management actions are complete.
  • Brief machinery operators, supervisors and fauna spotter catchers on the mapped exclusion zones and the daily work sequence.

Before habitat disturbance: Pre-clearance preparation

Complete a pre-clearance inspection of all ponds, drainage lines, wet depressions, wetland margins and adjoining terrestrial habitat within the disturbance footprint and immediately beside it.

Mark retained waterbodies, emergent vegetation, refuges, movement routes and no-go areas before machinery enters the site.

Use exclusion fencing where it can prevent entry into retained habitat without blocking required frog movement between retained wetlands and terrestrial refuge.

Inspect for adult frogs, calling males, egg masses and tadpoles immediately before clearing, especially in October to March and after warm weather or rain.

  • Install sediment, erosion and pollution controls before ground disturbance and keep them outside retained frog habitat where practicable.
  • Use low-impact access routes that avoid pond margins, wet depressions and dense refuge cover.
  • Record the condition of each retained waterbody before works, including water level, vegetation, fish presence and visible pollution.

During habitat disturbance: Daily controls and spotter catcher duties

Keep wetland protection and fauna supervision active for every shift that may affect frog habitat. Stop work when an animal, egg mass, tadpole concentration or unexpected habitat risk is found and the approved response has not yet been completed.

The fauna spotter catcher should inspect the work zone and adjacent retained habitat before each shift, with particular attention to wet areas, pond margins, reeds, litter, logs, rocks and machinery parking areas.

The spotter catcher should remain able to see the active clearing or excavation and should direct machinery to work in short, controlled stages.

Keep machinery, spoil, fuels, concrete washout, dirty water and sediment away from retained wetlands and drainage lines.

  • Recheck the site after rain, flooding, dewatering, overnight works or a change in the clearing footprint.
  • Use clean equipment and prevent transfer of contaminated water, soil, aquatic plants, fish or amphibian pathogens between waterbodies.
  • Keep artificial lighting directed away from retained wetlands where lighting could alter frog behaviour or attract predators.

During habitat disturbance: Habitat feature handling

Treat ponds, wet depressions, slow-flowing drainage lines, emergent vegetation, litter, logs, rocks and dense groundcover as potential frog habitat until inspected.

Do not move water, sediment, aquatic vegetation, fish or amphibians between waterbodies without approval and a site-specific biosecurity method.

If logs, rocks or other ground refuges must be moved, inspect them first and place them carefully in retained nearby habitat where approved.

  • Keep egg masses and tadpole aggregations undisturbed in the waterbody whenever possible.
  • If dewatering is unavoidable, stop and implement the approved aquatic fauna method, including authorised fauna capture, holding, relocation and water-quality controls.
  • Do not use hollow-bearing tree procedures as a substitute for wetland inspection, because the supplied documents identify this species as ground dwelling and closely tied to water.

During habitat disturbance: Animal found, handling and stop-work response

Stop the immediate activity if a green-and-golden bell frog, egg mass or tadpole aggregation is found in the impact area.

Only an appropriately authorised person should capture, handle or relocate the animal under the project approval and fauna management plan.

Relocate an uninjured frog only to suitable, nearby retained habitat that is connected to the affected area and approved for release, rather than moving it to an unrelated waterbody.

  • Use clean, damp equipment suitable for amphibians and minimise handling time, heat exposure and skin contact.
  • Do not release frogs into water containing known predatory fish or into saline or polluted water.
  • Take injured frogs to an approved wildlife carer or veterinarian as soon as practicable and record the transfer.
  • Keep work stopped until the spotter catcher confirms that the animal has been removed or protected and the environmental officer authorises recommencement.
  • Treat discovery of a breeding aggregation, repeated frog detections, fish invasion, pollution, drying or unexpected wetland connection as a stop-work trigger requiring review of the method.

During habitat disturbance: Records and incident reporting

Record every detection, capture, relocation, injury, death, egg mass, tadpole aggregation and stop-work event on the day it occurs.

For each record, note the date, time, precise location, life stage, number, habitat, weather, action taken, release location, handler, photographs and approval reference.

  • Report any threatened species incident, unauthorised harm, pollution, fish movement or failure of exclusion controls to the project environmental officer immediately.
  • Update the site map after each detection so machinery crews work from the current exclusion and retained-habitat boundaries.
  • Submit validated records to the relevant state or territory wildlife database and retain the full fauna register with the project records.

After habitat disturbance: Post-clearance checks

Do not remove fauna controls when the machinery leaves. Check the disturbed and retained areas, confirm that relocation and injury records are complete, and monitor wetland function and frog use through the next breeding period where the risk warrants it.

Complete a systematic inspection of the cleared footprint, access routes, spoil areas, excavations, wetland margins and retained refuge immediately after each clearing stage.

Check for stranded frogs, injured animals, egg masses, tadpoles, blocked movement routes, damaged exclusion fencing, sediment entry and altered water levels.

Keep excavations, trenches and pits inspected and managed until they are backfilled, covered or otherwise made safe under the fauna management plan.

  • Reinspect after rain, flooding, dewatering and major changes to water level.
  • Repair exclusion fencing, sediment controls and wetland buffers before the next shift.
  • Confirm that relocated animals were released at the approved location and that injured animals reached a veterinarian or wildlife carer.

After habitat disturbance: Monitoring and reporting

Monitor retained and rehabilitated ponds during the October to March breeding period for adult frogs, male calls, egg masses, tadpoles and metamorphs.

Compare monitoring results with the pre-work habitat record, including water persistence, emergent vegetation, fish presence, salinity or pollution indicators and connectivity to terrestrial cover.

Report unexpected declines, repeated mortality, loss of breeding water, mosquitofish colonisation or chytrid concerns through the project's environmental incident process.

Recommended post-work breeding window: October to March

Monitoring targets: Adults, calls, egg masses, tadpoles and metamorphs

  • Use the same survey locations and methods where practicable so results can be compared between pre-work and post-work monitoring.
  • Submit confirmed records and monitoring results to the relevant state or territory wildlife database where required.
  • Keep monitoring, fauna handling and incident records with the approval compliance evidence.

After habitat disturbance: Controls, offsets and completion

Maintain wetland buffers, exclusion fencing, sediment controls and access restrictions until the environmental officer confirms that the site is stable and the approval conditions are met.

Review whether residual loss of occupied or suitable habitat requires an offset, restoration commitment or additional management under the approval framework.

Close out the fauna management plan only after all incidents, relocations, monitoring results, corrective actions and database submissions have been documented.

  • Do not count an area as successfully reinstated solely because it holds water; confirm suitable shallow freshwater conditions, emergent vegetation, nearby cover and absence of introduced predatory fish.
  • Escalate any failure to meet approval or rehabilitation requirements to the project environmental manager and regulator where required.

Rehabilitation actions: Wetland and vegetation restoration

Rehabilitation should recreate the combination of shallow freshwater breeding habitat and nearby terrestrial refuge used by this ground-dwelling frog. Design the result to support breeding, movement, shelter and feeding rather than water alone.

Reinstate or create shallow, still or slow-flowing freshwater areas with sunny margins and emergent vegetation such as reeds and other suitable wetland plants.

Provide nearby grassed and structurally complex terrestrial habitat for feeding, shelter and movement between waterbodies.

Design temporary or semi-permanent ponds where the approval and hydrology allow, because temporary ponds can reduce the persistence of predatory fish and are used for breeding.

  • Avoid creating steep, permanently shaded or rapidly flowing water where these conditions do not match the species' documented habitat preferences.
  • Prevent saline or polluted inflows and monitor water quality where road runoff, excavation or coastal influence may affect breeding.
  • Use locally appropriate native wetland and groundcover plants selected by the rehabilitation ecologist for the site, because the supplied documents do not specify planting species.

Rehabilitation actions: Refuge, connectivity and predator management

Retain or reinstate logs, rocks, leaf litter and dense groundcover near water as daytime and seasonal refuge.

Connect restored ponds with retained terrestrial habitat and other suitable waterbodies, recognising that adults may move up to 3 km between suitable habitats.

Control introduced predatory fish, particularly mosquitofish, and manage cats, foxes and other introduced predators in accordance with the approved site plan.

Documented movement distance: Up to 3 km between suitable habitats

Documented terrestrial distance from water: Up to 400 m

  • Do not stock restored ponds with fish unless specifically approved and demonstrated to be compatible with the species.
  • Inspect restored areas for barriers such as drains, roads, fences and steep edges that could prevent movement between water and terrestrial habitat.
  • Use nest boxes or hollow-bearing tree measures only where they are required for other fauna, because this species is ground dwelling and the supplied documents do not identify tree hollows as habitat features for it.

Rehabilitation actions: Weed, disease and fire management

Control weeds while retaining the emergent and ground vegetation needed for basking, shelter and breeding habitat.

Use amphibian hygiene procedures between sites and waterbodies to reduce the risk of spreading chytrid fungus and other pathogens.

Set fire management actions with the site ecologist so fire does not remove all ground refuge, wetland edge vegetation or connected cover at once.

  • Clean and disinfect footwear, nets, buckets, gloves and other equipment between waterbodies under the approved hygiene procedure.
  • Do not move frogs, tadpoles, egg masses, water, sediment or aquatic plants between sites without approval and biosecurity controls.
  • Record weed treatment, fire, disease observations and any frog mortality during rehabilitation monitoring.

Rehabilitation actions: Success measures and monitoring

Monitor rehabilitated habitat through at least the relevant breeding period for adult detections, male calls, egg masses, tadpoles and metamorphs.

Measure whether restored water remains suitable, emergent vegetation establishes, terrestrial refuge is retained, movement connections remain open and predatory fish are absent or controlled.

Set site-specific completion targets in the rehabilitation plan because the supplied documents do not provide numerical restoration thresholds.

Primary breeding monitoring period: October to March

Biological indicators: Adults, calls, egg masses, tadpoles and metamorphs

  • Repeat habitat and night surveys using comparable routes, effort and weather records before and after rehabilitation.
  • Investigate failure to detect frogs alongside habitat decline, salinity, fish presence, pollution, disease or loss of connectivity rather than assuming the rehabilitation has failed for one reason.
  • Report monitoring results, corrective actions and confirmed records to the relevant state or territory wildlife database and approval authority where required.

Sources