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Great Knot (Calidris tenuirostris)

The Great Knot is a migratory shorebird that breeds in north-eastern Siberia and spends the Australian non-breeding season mainly on northern coastal mudflats, sandflats, estuaries, bays and lagoons. Australian projects can affect the species by removing intertidal feeding habitat, altering tidal or freshwater flows, disturbing high-tide roosts, and increasing light, noise, vehicle and dog disturbance at coastal wetlands.

Conservation status

Commonwealth, EPBC Act 1999: Vulnerable.

Queensland, Nature Conservation Act 1992: Vulnerable.

New South Wales, Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016: Vulnerable.

Victoria, Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988: Vulnerable.

South Australia, National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972: Endangered.

Western Australia, Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016: Critically endangered.

Tasmania, Threatened Species Protection Act 1995: Vulnerable.

Northern Territory, Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1976: Critically endangered.

Breeding season

Great Knots breed in the northern summer outside Australia and usually occur in Australia during the southern spring and summer. Timing varies between regions and age classes. Northern Australian arrivals begin in late August to early September, while juveniles and some males may arrive in October and November.

Months are January to December. A value of 2 indicates the strongest period supported by the supplied timing information, while 1 indicates occurrence or a lower level of activity.

  • Breeding and laying: Egg laying occurs from late May to late June in the Siberian breeding range. Great Knots do not breed in Australia.
  • Young dependent: Incubation takes about 21 days and fledging takes about 20 to 25 days. The male tends the chicks after hatching. Young birds generally remain in the non-breeding range during their first year.
  • Arrival and presence in Australia: Most birds arrive in northern Australia in late August to early September. Some juveniles and many males arrive in October and November. Most remain near their arrival destinations through the non-breeding season.
  • Return migration: Most birds leave Australia from the north coast in March and April. Smaller numbers leave southern Australia from February, and birds reach the breeding grounds from late May.
  • Highest clearing risk: Risk is highest while Great Knots are present in Australia, particularly during the September to November arrival period and the February to April return migration period. Clearing, construction or disturbance can remove feeding and roosting habitat or reduce energy reserves before migration.

Identification

The Great Knot is a bulky, medium-sized shorebird with a straight, slender, medium-length black bill, relatively short dark slate-grey legs and a dark grey tail that contrasts with a white rump in flight. Birds in Australia are normally in non-breeding plumage, but breeding and juvenile plumages may be seen during migration.

In non-breeding plumage, the upperparts are brownish-grey to grey, with darker feather centres and narrow pale margins that give a streaked or variegated appearance. The head, neck and breast are white to grey with dark streaking, the underparts are mainly white with spots along the breast and flanks, and the rump is white.

Adults in breeding plumage have heavier black streaking on the head, neck and breast, bold black spots and bars on the lower breast and upper belly, and black, white and sometimes chestnut markings on the scapulars. Juveniles are darker and more boldly marked than non-breeding adults, with a coarsely streaked head and neck and darker mantle and scapulars.

Length: 26 to 28 cm

Wingspan: Approximately 58 cm

Weight: Around 155 g

Sexes: Similar in appearance. Females are slightly larger and usually have less chestnut colouring in the scapulars during breeding plumage.

Identification: Similar shorebirds

The Great Knot can be confused with the Red Knot and Curlew Sandpiper. It is larger than both, has a longer bill than the Red Knot, and is more strongly marked on the upperparts than the Red Knot and Curlew Sandpiper.

The white rump, contrasting dark grey tail, bulky body, relatively short legs and straight slender bill are useful features when birds are seen in flight or at a high-tide roost.

Identification: Field signs

Great Knots are usually detected as part of a flock on exposed intertidal mud or sand, or packed into a communal high-tide roost. Feeding birds move along the water's edge and rapidly jab their bills into wet mud or sand.

The supplied sources do not describe diagnostic tracks, scats, calls, nests, burrows, sloughs or eyeshine for this species. A nest is not expected on Australian project sites because Great Knots do not breed in Australia.

  • Check exposed soft mud and sand at low tide for medium-sized knots feeding at the water's edge.
  • Check sheltered sandflats, spits, banks, beaches, lagoons, bays and estuaries at high tide for roosting flocks.
  • Use the contrasting white rump and dark grey tail to check flying birds.

Distribution: Australian range

The Great Knot has been recorded around the entire Australian coast, with a small number of inland records. It is most numerous in northern Australia and is much less common in south-western Australia, South Australia, Victoria and Tasmania.

In Western Australia, the main Australian strongholds are the Pilbara and Kimberley coasts. In the Northern Territory, important coastal areas extend from Darwin to the south-eastern Gulf of Carpentaria. On the east coast, important areas include Broad Sound and Shoalwater Bay, the Mackay region and Moreton Bay in Queensland.

The species has records from NSW, Queensland, South Australia, Victoria, Tasmania, Western Australia and the Northern Territory. It is rarely recorded far inland, although a few records occur inland in several states.

  • Western Australia: common on the Pilbara and Kimberley coasts; the species is listed as Critically Endangered in WA.
  • Northern Territory: coastal records from Joseph Bonaparte Gulf through Darwin, the Tiwi Islands and Arnhem Land to the south-west Gulf of Carpentaria; listed as Critically Endangered in the NT.
  • Queensland: important areas include Broad Sound, Shoalwater Bay, Mackay and Moreton Bay; listed as Vulnerable in Queensland.
  • New South Wales: coastal records, including the Hunter Estuary; listed as Vulnerable in NSW.
  • South Australia, Victoria and Tasmania: generally less common coastal occurrences; listed as Endangered in South Australia and Vulnerable in Victoria and Tasmania.

Distribution: Strongholds and site use

Most birds that reach Australia settle along the northern coastline between north-western Western Australia and the Gulf of Carpentaria. Some move to eastern Queensland and smaller numbers occur further south.

Birds show strong fidelity to non-breeding sites and may remain at or close to their arrival destinations through the non-breeding season. A large network of sites is needed because birds may need alternative feeding and roosting areas when conditions change.

  • Treat connected feeding mudflats and nearby high-tide roosts as one functional site.
  • Check nearby estuaries, lagoons, bays and sandflats even where birds are not present during one survey, because use varies with tide, weather and season.
  • Do not assume that a site is unimportant because it supports few birds on one visit.

Distribution: Population and trend

Population trend estimates are variable. Recent analysis estimated a mean annual change of minus 0.9 percent from 1993 to 2021, equivalent to an estimated decline of 32.4 percent over three generations, although the confidence interval was wide. The estimated annual change from 2012 to 2021 was minus 5.6 percent.

Earlier studies estimated declines of 45 percent and 63 percent over three generations, while other analyses produced different results. The variable estimates may reflect non-linear change or different trends in different parts of Australia.

East Asian to Australasian Flyway population, 2016: Approximately 425,000 mature individuals.

Estimated Australian population, 2016: Approximately 381,900 mature individuals.

Estimated Australian population, 2020: Approximately 386,900 mature individuals.

Estimated extent of occurrence: Approximately 9,600,000 km2, with a reported range of 9,100,000 to 10,100,000 km2.

Estimated area of occupancy: Approximately 6,000 km2, with a reported range of 6,000 to 9,000 km2.

Habitat: Australian habitat

In Australia, Great Knots occur almost exclusively in coastal environments. They need a mosaic of exposed intertidal feeding habitat and nearby sheltered roosting habitat, with access maintained across the tidal cycle.

Preferred areas include exposed sandy or soft mud substrates on intertidal flats and beaches. The species occurs around estuaries, lagoons, inlets, bays, harbours, spits and sandbanks.

Sheltered coastal sites with extensive tidal mudflats or sandflats are particularly important. Upper intertidal flats may be especially important, although feeding can occur over the whole tidal range.

  • Retain open intertidal mud and sand, rather than allowing these areas to be filled, hardened or covered by dense vegetation.
  • Maintain a short, unobstructed connection between feeding flats and nearby roosts.
  • Include adjacent saltmarsh, saline pasture, beaches and shallow wetland margins when assessing the functional site.

Habitat: Breeding range and climate limits

The species breeds in subarctic montane tundra in north-eastern Siberia and far north-eastern Russia, at elevations of about 300 to 1,600 m. Breeding habitat includes lichenous gravelly herbfields, areas with Empetrum, Dryas and Vaccinium, and sites with continuous lichen cover and scattered stunted larch or dwarf pine.

Australian birds are non-breeding visitors. They move between the Arctic breeding grounds and coastal non-breeding areas along the East Asian to Australasian Flyway.

Breeding elevation: About 300 to 1,600 m in the subarctic breeding range.

Australian breeding status: Does not breed in Australia.

Foraging habitat: Diet and feeding method

Great Knots feed on exposed wet mud and sand, usually at the water's edge on intertidal flats. They are deep-probing shorebirds whose feeding habitat depends on suitable soft sediment and an accessible supply of benthic prey.

The species feeds mainly on bivalves, gastropods, crustaceans, annelid worms and echinoderms such as sea cucumbers. Small chicks on the breeding grounds feed exclusively on insects, including fly and beetle larvae, and spiders.

Great Knots rapidly jab their bills into wet mud, taking prey from the surface or just below it. Their persistence at some stopover sites after the loss of preferred prey indicates some flexibility in diet, but structural changes to soft sediment can inhibit successful foraging.

Main prey: Bivalves, gastropods, crustaceans, annelid worms and echinoderms.

Chick diet: Insects and spiders.

Foraging substrate: Exposed wet mud or sand, especially along intertidal water edges.

  • Inspect the water's edge and recently exposed soft sediment during low tide.
  • Treat bivalve beds and other benthic invertebrate resources as part of the feeding habitat.
  • Avoid compaction of mud and sand by vehicles, machinery, stock or construction access.

Foraging habitat: Foraging area and site function

The supplied sources do not provide a species-specific foraging distance or home-range size. Great Knots generally remain at or close to their arrival destinations during the Australian non-breeding season, but the feeding and roosting parts of a site function together.

A development can affect foraging even without clearing the mudflat itself. Changes to tidal exchange, salinity, sediment supply, benthic prey, drainage or nearby roost access can reduce the value of the feeding area.

  • Map all intertidal feeding areas used at different tide stages, not only the area occupied during one survey.
  • Assess nearby roosts, access routes, discharge points and hydrological structures with the feeding flat.
  • Avoid lighting, noise, people, dogs and vehicle movement beside feeding flats during the Australian presence period.

Breeding habitat: Breeding habitat

Great Knots breed outside Australia in the subarctic. Australian works do not affect nests directly, but disturbance or habitat loss at Australian non-breeding sites can reduce energy reserves needed for migration and future breeding.

Breeding occurs in montane tundra at about 300 to 1,600 m. Nests are typically placed in lichenous gravelly herbfields, among Empetrum, Dryas and Vaccinium, or in areas with continuous lichen cover and scattered stunted larch or dwarf pine.

The species has strong fidelity to breeding and non-breeding sites. Conditions at Australian feeding and roosting sites can therefore affect the birds even though breeding occurs overseas.

  • Do not treat the absence of breeding birds in Australia as evidence that Australian habitat is of low value.
  • Protect Australian feeding and roosting habitat needed to maintain condition before the return migration.
  • Consider the full migratory cycle when assessing impacts on an EPBC listed species.

Breeding habitat: Reproductive biology

Breeding season: Egg laying occurs from late May to late June in the northern breeding range.

Clutch size: Usually four eggs; sometimes three.

Incubation: About 21 days.

Fledging: Approximately 20 to 25 days after hatching.

Parental care: The female departs after hatching and the male tends the chicks, according to the Australian conservation advice.

Age at maturity: Not stated in the supplied sources.

Lifespan: Not stated in the supplied sources. Generation length is estimated at 8.6 years.

Sheltering habitat: Roost types

Great Knots roost communally at high tide in open, sheltered coastal sites close to feeding flats. Roosts can be natural or modified features, but they need sufficient space, low disturbance and a clear connection to intertidal feeding habitat.

Typical roosts include sheltered sandflats, spits, sandbanks, beaches, estuaries, coastal lagoons, bays and harbours. Damp substrates may be selected during hot conditions because they reduce local temperature.

During cyclonic weather, shorebirds tend to move to sheltered areas to avoid high winds and heavy rain. The supplied sources do not give a standard roost size or minimum distance from disturbance.

  • Survey sandflats, spits, banks, beaches, lagoon margins, bays and estuary edges at high tide.
  • Maintain open sightlines around roosts where possible, because dense mangrove growth can reduce roost suitability.
  • Provide shelter from high winds and heavy rain without blocking movement between the roost and feeding flat.

Sheltering habitat: Modified roosts and site examples

The species can use human-made features where they provide suitable open ground and tidal access. In the Hunter Estuary, Stockton Sandspit and the Kooragang Dykes have functioned as important high-tide roosts for migratory shorebirds.

At Kooragang, more than 5,000 shorebirds have been recorded roosting on the dykes at high tide during summer months. The example shows that reclaimed or constructed features may still be part of a functional shorebird site, but their value depends on substrate, tidal conditions, disturbance and nearby feeding habitat.

Hunter Estuary roost count: More than 5,000 shorebirds have been recorded at the Kooragang Dykes at high tide during summer months between 1999 and 2007.

Kooragang Dykes length: Approximately 1.5 km.

Threats: Clearing, reclamation and fragmentation

The main project risks in Australia are loss or modification of intertidal habitat, disturbance at feeding and roosting sites, pollution and changes to coastal hydrology. Impacts can occur without direct mortality if birds are repeatedly displaced from feeding or roosting areas.

Filling, reclamation or construction in intertidal mudflats, sandflats, saltmarshes, lagoons, estuaries and coastal roosts can remove habitat or break the connection between feeding and roosting areas.

Relevant Australian examples include landfill for industrial, housing or port development, road construction, marinas, canals, resorts, salt production, rubbish dumping and urban stormwater drainage.

Internationally important Great Knot site threshold: More than 1 percent of the flyway population, stated as 4,250 individuals.

Nationally important Great Knot site threshold: More than 0.1 percent of the flyway population, stated as 425 individuals.

  • Avoid clearing, filling or hardening exposed mud and sand used for feeding.
  • Retain nearby high-tide roosts and the routes between roosts and feeding areas.
  • Assess indirect effects from altered salinity, sedimentation, drainage and tidal exchange.
  • Check whether the site regularly supports more than 4,250 Great Knots for international importance or more than 425 for national importance.

Threats: Disturbance during construction and operation

People, vehicles, machinery, boats, fishing, shellfish harvesting, aquaculture, recreation and off-leash dogs can cause birds to stop feeding and fly around. Repeated disturbance can reduce energy reserves needed for migration and may reduce survival or breeding success.

Noise, lighting, access tracks and regular movement near high-tide roosts can affect habitat even when no vegetation is removed.

  • Keep workers, vehicles, dogs, boats and machinery away from feeding and roosting areas while Great Knots are present.
  • Use exclusion zones and controlled access around known roosts and feeding flats.
  • Schedule noisy or high-traffic work outside the Australian presence period where practicable.
  • Inspect roosts during high tide and feeding flats during low tide before starting works.

Threats: Hydrology, sediment and vegetation change

Changes to local hydrology, restricted sediment supply, altered tidal regimes, sea-level rise and seawalls can reduce the area of suitable intertidal habitat. Urban runoff can alter salinity, while dams and water regulation can reduce sediment and water flows that sustain wetlands.

Mangrove encroachment and invasive cordgrass can replace open mudflat and saltmarsh with dense vegetation, reducing feeding and roosting space and restricting movement.

  • Maintain tidal exchange and avoid drainage or discharge changes that alter salinity or inundation patterns.
  • Prevent sediment smothering, compaction and excessive sediment removal from soft-sediment feeding areas.
  • Inspect open mudflats and roosts for mangrove or invasive cordgrass encroachment.
  • Retain space for intertidal habitat to move inland where coastal planning allows.

Threats: Pollution and other pressures

Stormwater, agricultural and catchment runoff can carry nutrients, heavy metals, sediments, pesticides and other pollutants into wetlands. Oil or chemical spills can cause long-term loss of marine benthic food sources.

Hunting, large-scale coastal reclamation, aquaculture, invasive plants and climate change are also important across the broader migratory range, particularly around Yellow Sea staging sites.

  • Prevent fuel, oil, concrete washout, chemicals, sediment and rubbish from entering intertidal habitat.
  • Protect benthic prey from contamination and sediment disturbance.
  • Include cumulative impacts on the East Asian to Australasian Flyway when assessing major coastal projects.

Threats: Roads, fire, predators and disease

The supplied species sources do not identify roads, fire, introduced predators or disease as principal threats to Great Knots. Project controls should nevertheless prevent vehicle access to mudflats and roosts, avoid creating new disturbance corridors, and follow site biosecurity and pollution controls.

There is no evidence in the supplied sources that Great Knots use tree hollows, burrows or dense terrestrial ground cover in Australia. Their main sheltering requirement is an undisturbed coastal roost near intertidal feeding habitat.

  • Do not create vehicle access across soft intertidal sediment or beside high-tide roosts.
  • Manage project waste, food and access to avoid attracting predators or scavengers to roosts.
  • Apply standard fauna hygiene and spill response procedures where works occur beside wetlands.
  • Treat fire planning as a site-specific issue for adjacent saltmarsh or coastal vegetation rather than as a documented primary Great Knot threat.

Survey methodology: 1. Habitat and desktop assessment

Great Knots are migratory shorebirds that use coastal intertidal mudflats and sandflats for feeding, and sheltered estuaries, lagoons, bays and inlets for roosting. Survey effort should target these habitats, account for tides and season, and avoid relying on terrestrial fauna methods such as spotlighting or trapping.

Map intertidal mudflats, sandflats, estuaries, lagoons, bays, inlets, beaches, spits, banks and high tide roosts before field survey.

Check the project area and nearby connected wetlands against records of nationally or internationally important migratory shorebird habitat.

Assess habitat within and adjoining the disturbance footprint because Great Knots may feed in one area and roost in another.

Review records from state wildlife databases, the Species of National Environmental Significance database, local shorebird groups and relevant site managers.

Australian presence: Usually September to April, with most birds arriving in northern Australia in late August to early September and most leaving in March to April.

Key feeding habitat: Exposed sandy or soft intertidal mud substrates, especially upper tidal flats and areas supporting marine invertebrates.

Key roosting habitat: Large intertidal sandflats, spits and banks, plus sheltered estuaries, coastal lagoons, bays and damp substrates used during hot conditions.

Survey methodology: 2. Daytime tidal counts

Survey from a concealed or low disturbance position where the full feeding or roosting area can be viewed without entering the wetland.

Complete counts at low tide when feeding flats are exposed and at high tide when birds are concentrated at roosts.

Record the survey date, start and finish time, tide stage, weather, observer numbers, survey area, flock size, species and behaviour.

Use binoculars or a telescope to identify birds without approaching flocks or causing repeated flight responses.

Repeat counts across representative tidal cycles where the project may affect both feeding and roosting habitat.

  • Plan survey times from local tide predictions and document the tide height or stage for each count.
  • Walk only routes that do not cross roosts or feeding flocks, and stop or withdraw if birds repeatedly take flight.
  • Record all Great Knot observations, including birds outside the footprint that may use connected habitat.

Survey methodology: 3. Movement and disturbance observations

Observe how Great Knots move between feeding flats, roosts and adjacent wetlands during the survey period.

Record flight responses, repeated flushing, interrupted feeding, flock displacement, people, dogs, vehicles, boats, machinery, lighting and other disturbance sources.

Map the location of each flock and note whether birds are feeding, roosting, staging or moving through the site.

Use repeated observations to identify habitat that may be important even when birds are absent on a single visit.

  • Survey the full area of suitable habitat and nearby connected habitat rather than only the construction footprint.
  • Use the same observation points and count method on repeat visits so changes can be compared.
  • Do not use playback, spotlighting, trapping or flushing to detect this species.

Survey methodology: Minimum effort and reporting

  • Undertake a desktop habitat and records assessment before planning field work.
  • Complete targeted daytime surveys during the Australian non-breeding period, with visits covering both exposed feeding flats and high tide roosts where both habitat types are present.
  • Set the number of visits and survey area from the size and connectivity of the wetland, the tidal cycle, the proposed disturbance and the likelihood of seasonal use, and document the basis for that decision.
  • Record negative results with the date, tide stage, weather, observer effort, survey area and habitats inspected.
  • Submit confirmed records and survey data to the relevant state or territory wildlife database and other requested national biodiversity databases.
  • Report any record from habitat that may meet the international threshold of more than 4,250 Great Knots or the national threshold of more than 425 Great Knots to the project ecologist and approval authority.

Before habitat disturbance: Avoid and minimise

Avoid impacts to intertidal feeding habitat and nearby roosts before considering mitigation. A project can affect Great Knots through direct habitat loss, altered hydrology, disturbance, lighting, pollution or loss of access between feeding and roosting areas.

Redesign the footprint to retain exposed soft mud and sand flats, upper tidal flats, beaches, spits, banks, estuaries, lagoons and sheltered roosts.

Retain the wetland processes that maintain tidal exchange, sediment supply, salinity and benthic food resources.

Keep feeding and roosting areas connected and retain alternative sites within the local wetland network.

Do not place stockpiles, access tracks, lighting, compounds, spoil or drainage outlets beside occupied feeding or roosting habitat.

Set project-specific no-go areas and disturbance buffers through the impact assessment, based on flock locations, flight responses, tide stage, noise, lighting and the activity proposed.

  • Avoid reclamation, filling, dredging, drainage changes and sediment smothering of intertidal habitat.
  • Avoid works during the period when Great Knots are present, where the program allows, particularly September to April.
  • Do not assume that a site is unimportant because birds are absent during one visit.

Before habitat disturbance: Approvals and planning

Check whether the action is likely to have a significant impact on an EPBC Act listed migratory species and refer it to the Australian Government where required.

Check state and territory threatened species, wildlife, wetland, coastal, planning and clearing requirements before work starts.

Confirm whether the project affects Ramsar or other nationally or internationally important wetland habitat.

Prepare a fauna management plan that identifies Great Knot habitat, survey results, approved work areas, exclusion zones, timing controls, lighting controls, pollution controls, stop-work triggers and reporting responsibilities.

  • Include the fauna spotter catcher, site supervisor, machinery operators, environmental officer and relevant approval holders in a pre-start briefing.
  • Give the fauna spotter catcher authority to stop work when a Great Knot, occupied roost, feeding flock or unexpected wetland impact is identified.
  • Coordinate the program with tidal conditions and the species' seasonal use of the site.

Before habitat disturbance: Site preparation

Complete a pre-clearance inspection immediately before works in or beside suitable coastal habitat.

Mark no-go areas, feeding flats, roosts, wetland edges, drainage lines, access limits and approved machinery routes on plans and on the ground.

Install exclusion fencing where it can prevent people, vehicles, dogs or machinery entering retained habitat without diverting birds into unsafe areas.

Remove unnecessary food waste, rubbish and materials that could attract predators or obstruct wetland drainage.

Brief all workers not to approach, chase, feed or photograph birds at close range.

During habitat disturbance: Daily controls

The fauna spotter catcher and site supervisor must keep machinery, people, lighting, sediment and noise away from retained feeding and roosting habitat. Great Knots may stop feeding and fly repeatedly when disturbed, reducing energy reserves needed for migration.

Inspect exclusion fencing, no-go markers, sediment controls, spill controls, lighting and access routes before each shift.

Check nearby feeding flats and roosts at the start of work, during tide changes and before high-risk activities near the wetland.

Keep machinery, vehicles, workers, dogs and unauthorised visitors out of retained habitat and approved buffers.

Direct lights away from mudflats, roosts, estuaries, lagoons and flight paths, and use only lighting needed for safe work.

Prevent concrete washout, fuel, oil, chemicals, sediment, rubbish and stormwater from entering intertidal or wetland habitat.

  • Stop or relocate work if birds repeatedly flush, circle, abandon a roost, or are prevented from reaching feeding or roosting habitat.
  • Maintain a quiet, predictable work zone beside retained habitat and avoid sudden vehicle movements, horns and unnecessary alarms.
  • Use spotters at the interface between machinery and the wetland rather than relying on workers to notice birds while operating equipment.

During habitat disturbance: Fauna spotter and machinery protocol

The fauna spotter catcher must inspect the work area and the machinery path before each new work stage.

Keep machinery stopped while the spotter checks the edge of the approved work area, wetland margins, stockpiles, drains and any area where birds may be concealed or resting.

Maintain visual contact with retained habitat while clearing, piling, dredging, driving, excavating or moving spoil nearby.

Use a staged approach so the spotter can reassess birds and habitat after each section is completed.

Record the operator, machine, work area, start and finish time, tide stage, weather, bird observations and any instructions given.

  • Do not allow machinery to enter a no-go area to retrieve equipment, spoil or materials without approval from the environmental officer.
  • Do not flush birds deliberately to clear a work area.
  • Escalate any need to enter a buffer, alter drainage or work during an occupied roost period before proceeding.

During habitat disturbance: If a Great Knot is found

Stop the activity causing the immediate risk and keep people and machinery back from the bird.

Notify the site supervisor and environmental officer, and have the authorised fauna handler assess the situation.

Do not catch, restrain or transport a Great Knot unless the person is authorised, trained and acting under the applicable approval or permit.

If the bird is mobile and uninjured, allow it to leave without pursuit and protect the nearby feeding or roosting area.

If relocation is approved and necessary, move the bird only to nearby suitable retained habitat that provides open mud or sand feeding areas or a secure roost, following the fauna management plan.

Take an injured or sick bird to an appropriately licensed wildlife carer or veterinarian, as directed by the relevant wildlife authority.

Record the location, condition, action taken, handler, destination, time, tide stage, photographs where appropriate and outcome.

  • Treat repeated flushing, a bird trapped by fencing, an injured bird, a bird unable to fly, or loss of access to feeding or roosting habitat as a stop-work trigger.
  • Do not use domestic animal carriers, nets or other equipment unless the authorised handler confirms that it is suitable and permitted.
  • Do not release a bird into an active work area, artificial wetland or habitat that does not provide suitable coastal feeding or roosting conditions.

During habitat disturbance: Records and incident reporting

Maintain a daily fauna register with survey effort, bird counts, behaviour, disturbance events, controls, incidents, captures, relocations and mortalities.

Photograph and map any damaged wetland, sediment plume, spill, changed drainage, habitat loss or unauthorised entry.

Notify the approval holder and relevant authority of any mortality, injury, unauthorised habitat damage, significant flock displacement or breach of an approval condition.

Update the fauna management plan when monitoring shows that controls are not preventing disturbance.

After habitat disturbance: Completion checks

Completion of works does not end the risk. Check that retained feeding and roosting habitat remains accessible, functional and free of construction impacts, then continue monitoring through the period when Great Knots use the site.

Inspect the full disturbance footprint and adjacent wetland for injured or dead birds, trapped fauna, damaged fencing, rubbish, spills, sediment deposition and altered drainage.

Remove temporary access tracks, stockpiles, lighting, fencing and equipment that obstruct feeding flats, roosts or tidal flows, unless they are approved to remain.

Confirm that no spoil, rock, fill, weeds or construction debris has entered intertidal mudflats, sandflats, estuaries, lagoons or roost sites.

Repair erosion, sediment controls, drainage failures and damaged exclusion fencing before demobilisation.

  • Keep controls in place until the environmental officer confirms that the site is stable and no longer presents a fauna or habitat risk.
  • Complete a final targeted count at a suitable tide if the work affected known feeding or roosting habitat.
  • Record the condition of retained habitat with photographs, maps and notes that can be compared with pre-work information.

After habitat disturbance: Post-work monitoring

Monitor Great Knot presence, flock size, feeding, roost use, flight responses and access to retained habitat during the next suitable non-breeding period.

Use the same observation locations and tidal conditions as the pre-work surveys where practicable.

Monitor nearby habitat as well as the footprint because birds may shift between feeding flats and roosts after disturbance.

Investigate any sustained absence, reduced flock size, repeated flushing or change in roost use against regional conditions and other threats.

  • Include monitoring of sediment, water quality, tidal exchange, prey habitat, mangrove or cordgrass encroachment and human disturbance where these were project risks.
  • Continue monitoring for the period required by the approval, fauna management plan or offset conditions.
  • Submit monitoring results, incident reports and confirmed records to the relevant state or territory wildlife database and approval authorities.

After habitat disturbance: Offsets and corrective action

Apply any approved offset, restoration or habitat protection measure required for unavoidable residual impacts.

Ensure an offset or replacement site provides the same relevant function, such as intertidal feeding habitat, high tide roosting habitat or connected wetland habitat.

Do not treat an offset as permission to remove habitat that can be avoided or retained.

Implement corrective action if monitoring shows that the project has reduced habitat quality, blocked tidal access or displaced Great Knots from a regularly used site.

Rehabilitation actions: Restore habitat structure and hydrology

Rehabilitation should restore open intertidal feeding areas, secure high tide roosts and the wetland processes that support benthic prey. Great Knots do not breed in Australia, so rehabilitation should focus on non-breeding feeding, roosting and movement habitat.

Reinstate natural tidal exchange, drainage and sediment movement where construction has altered them.

Shape wetland edges and shallow intertidal areas to provide exposed soft mud or sand at low tide and safe roosting areas at high tide.

Retain open sightlines at roosts where dense vegetation would reduce suitability or increase the risk of disturbance.

Control mangrove or cordgrass encroachment where it replaces open mudflats, saltmarsh or roosting habitat, using the approved method and relevant permits.

Do not plant trees, shrubs or dense vegetation across open intertidal feeding flats or high tide roosts.

  • Use locally appropriate saltmarsh and coastal wetland plants only where vegetation is part of the intended wetland structure and does not cover open feeding habitat.
  • Protect restored areas from vehicle access, dogs, recreation, stock, construction traffic and artificial lighting.
  • Use locally sourced plant material where practicable and prevent imported soil or mulch from introducing weeds.

Rehabilitation actions: Prey and pollution management

Protect the mud and sand conditions that support bivalves, gastropods, crustaceans, worms and other marine invertebrates eaten by Great Knots.

Prevent sedimentation, nutrient enrichment, hydrocarbons, pesticides, heavy metals, rubbish and other pollutants from entering restored wetlands.

Maintain water quality and salinity within the range needed for the target wetland community rather than creating isolated artificial ponds.

Inspect restored habitat after storms, floods and high tides for erosion, sediment deposition, scouring and pollution.

  • Remove construction debris and rubbish before birds return to the site.
  • Control weeds and invasive coastal plants that reduce open feeding or roosting habitat.
  • Manage predators and disturbance in accordance with the approved site management plan and applicable wildlife requirements.

Rehabilitation actions: Monitoring and success measures

Monitor whether restored areas are inundated and exposed as designed across the tidal cycle.

Monitor the area and condition of open mud or sand feeding habitat, high tide roost availability, tidal connectivity, vegetation encroachment, pollution and human disturbance.

Undertake repeat daytime counts during the Great Knot non-breeding period, including low tide feeding observations and high tide roost observations where relevant.

Compare post-rehabilitation results with baseline habitat maps, photographs, tide observations and bird counts.

Australian non-breeding period: Generally September to April.

Typical Australian habitat use: Feeding on intertidal mud or sand and roosting in sheltered coastal areas, often in flocks with other shorebirds.

  • Set success measures before works begin, including retained or restored area of suitable feeding and roosting habitat, functioning tidal exchange, no unacceptable pollution, controlled invasive vegetation and continued use by Great Knots or other migratory shorebirds.
  • Investigate and correct failure where restored habitat is inaccessible, is covered by sediment, becomes densely vegetated, loses tidal exchange or causes repeated bird disturbance.
  • Keep rehabilitation and monitoring records with dates, tide stages, methods, counts, photographs, maintenance actions and responsible personnel.

Sources