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Golden Whistler (Pachycephala pectoralis)

The Golden Whistler is a small, loud-voiced woodland bird found across much of eastern and southern Australia, including eucalypt forest, woodland and mallee. It forages mainly in dense lower and middle vegetation, so clearing of shrub layers, edge habitat and breeding territories can affect it even where mature trees are retained.

Conservation status

Commonwealth, EPBC Act 1999: Vulnerable.

New South Wales, Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016: Vulnerable.

Breeding season

Timing varies across Australia. The table reflects the best-supported pattern for Australian populations, with additional movement information from south-eastern Victoria and the listed Norfolk Island subspecies.

A migratory Victorian population typically arrived in early September and departed in late April. This pattern should not be applied to all Australian populations, which may be resident or locally mobile.

  • Breeding: Australian breeding is reported from September to January. Breeding on Norfolk Island has been recorded from September to February.
  • Young: Eggs hatch after about 14 to 17 days and young remain in the nest for about 10 to 13 days. Adults continue caring for the young after fledging.
  • Movement or dispersal: Many populations are sedentary. In south-eastern Australia, some birds move to lower areas in winter, and a migratory Toolangi population arrived in early September and departed in late April. Young dispersal is poorly known.
  • Highest clearing risk: September to January is the highest risk period because breeding, nesting and dependent young occur then. Avoid clearing dense habitat in this period where practicable, and increase nest searches before any unavoidable works.

Identification

The Golden Whistler is a compact bird with a large rounded head, stout dark bill and a strong, musical call. It is most often detected by sound in dense vegetation, then confirmed by plumage and body shape.

Adult males have bright yellow underparts, olive-green back and wings, a black head, a bright yellow collar, a white throat and a broad black band between the throat and yellow chest.

Females are generally grey above with a pale olive tinge and paler grey underparts with a buff wash. Juveniles are rufous and develop plumage resembling the female as they mature.

Length: 16 to 18 cm

Weight: Approximately 21 to 28 g

Adult eye: Red-brown

Bill and legs: Dark bill; black legs in males and grey-brown legs in females

Identification: Calls and similar species

The call is loud, musical and varied. Reported phrases include a repeated 'we-we-we-tu-whit', with a stronger final note, and a rising 'seep'. Calls may carry well beyond the immediate shrub layer and are often the first indication that the bird is present.

The species shows extensive geographic variation in plumage, with differences in head, collar, throat, breast band and back colour. Check the location and habitat before relying on plumage alone. On Norfolk Island, the Mangrove Golden Whistler is listed as a similar species, while the supplied survey material identifies no similar species on Norfolk Island for the listed subspecies.

  • Use the loud whistled call, rounded head and stout bill together with habitat and location to separate the bird from other small woodland passerines.
  • Female Golden Whistlers can be confused with other plain grey or brown whistlers. Record the call and photograph the bird where possible.

Identification: Field signs

The species does not leave distinctive tracks, scats, sloughs or other ground signs that are described in the supplied sources. It is normally located by its call or by sight in foliage and branches.

The nest is a shallow cup of twigs, grass and bark bound with spider web and lined with finer grass. It is placed in a fork of a bush or tree, up to 6 m above ground. Both adults build the nest, incubate the eggs and care for the young.

  • Search dense shrubs and lower to middle tree layers after a calling bird has been detected.
  • Treat repeated territorial calling from the same patch as an indication of a breeding territory during September to January.
  • Do not rely on an absence of nests during a brief inspection, because nests are small, concealed and placed above ground.

Distribution: Australian range

The Golden Whistler has a broad Australian distribution, extending from northern Queensland around the eastern and southern coasts to central Western Australia, and including Tasmania. It also occurs outside Australia in Indonesia, New Guinea, Fiji and the Solomon Islands.

In Australia, the species occurs in northern Queensland, along coastal and inland parts of eastern and southern Australia, through Tasmania and westward to central Western Australia.

The supplied sources support occurrence in Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania. They do not provide a complete state-by-state distribution map or a state-specific population estimate.

Distribution: Mallee records and strongholds

The Golden Whistler is an associated species of the Eastern Mallee Bird Community and is recorded in mallee habitat across the Eastern Mallee region. The supplied material identifies the Murray Darling Depression bioregion and the Eastern Mallee region as relevant areas, with data also covering the Eyre Peninsula and other South Australian, Victorian and New South Wales mallee areas.

In major mallee conservation areas, the average reporting rate was 10.70 percent. The species was recorded at 3.80 percent in Murray-Sunset, was not recorded in the Danggali-Chowilla-Tarawi dataset, and was recorded at 28.30 percent in Big Desert-Ngarkat. These are survey reporting rates, not population estimates.

Distribution: Population information

No national population size, density, home-range estimate or generation length is provided in the supplied documents. The Eastern Mallee reporting-rate analysis found no overall trend for the Golden Whistler from 1999 to 2013, but showed regional variation, including a decline in the Wimmera and an increase in the South Australian Murray Darling Basin between 2001 to 2006 and 2006 to 2013.

The species is described as common to moderately common across most of its broad range in the general species account. The EPBC Act Vulnerable status supplied for this profile relates to the listed conservation context provided by the user, and the survey guidelines specifically describe the Norfolk Island subspecies as Vulnerable.

Average reporting rate in three major mallee reserves: 10.70 percent

Murray-Sunset reporting rate: 3.80 percent

Danggali-Chowilla-Tarawi reporting rate: Not recorded in the supplied dataset

Big Desert-Ngarkat reporting rate: 28.30 percent

Habitat: Habitat types

The Golden Whistler uses a wide range of wooded habitats but prefers denser areas. Habitat retention should include the shrub and lower tree layers, not just the overstorey.

Recorded habitats include rainforest, secondary growth, eucalypt forest, drier woodland, mallee, occasional mangroves, parks, orchards, gardens and urban vegetation.

In the Eastern Mallee, it occurs as an associated species of mallee bird habitat. Mallee vegetation in this region includes open eucalypt woodlands and shrublands, often on sandy aeolian landforms, with mallee trees typically less than 6 m tall.

Habitat: Structural features

The species prefers dense vegetation, including thickets and shrubby understorey. It mainly uses the lower and middle storeys and is less often found in the upper canopy.

Useful habitat on a project site may therefore include dense shrub patches, regenerating vegetation, connected woodland understorey, mallee clumps and vegetated edges. Retaining isolated mature trees without the surrounding shrub layer is unlikely to retain all habitat functions described for the species.

  • Map dense understorey and shrub patches before clearing.
  • Identify connected vegetation between larger woodland or mallee remnants.
  • Retain vegetation around known or repeatedly occupied calling sites where practicable.

Habitat: Climate and elevation

The species occurs from sea level to above 2,100 m on some islands. In south-eastern Australia, some populations move from higher elevations to lower areas in winter. Elsewhere, the species is mainly sedentary.

The supplied sources do not define a temperature threshold, rainfall limit or minimum patch size for mainland populations.

Recorded elevation range: Sea level to above 2,100 m on some islands

Typical movement: Sedentary in many areas, with some winter and post-breeding movements in south-eastern Australia

Foraging habitat: Diet

Golden Whistlers feed mainly alone by gleaning prey from leaves, twigs, branches and bark. Foraging habitat is concentrated in dense lower and middle vegetation, although birds may use several woodland layers.

The diet consists mainly of insects, spiders and other small arthropods. Berries are also eaten.

The supplied sources do not identify particular food plant species for the Golden Whistler. Retaining native plants that provide foliage, bark surfaces, berries and insect prey is therefore the most direct habitat measure supported by the available information.

Main prey: Insects, spiders and other small arthropods

Other food: Berries

Foraging habitat: Foraging method and locations

Birds search foliage and limbs methodically, picking prey from leaves or bark. Occasional hover-gleaning and hawking are also reported.

The species usually forages in thickets and the lower to middle storeys. It normally feeds alone, although pairs may occur during territorial or breeding activity.

  • Inspect dense shrubs, mallee understorey, regenerating woodland and lower tree branches when searching for feeding birds.
  • Avoid removing shrub layers beneath retained trees where those layers provide foliage, bark and berries.
  • Record the vegetation layer used, feeding behaviour and direction of movement, rather than recording only the tree species.

Foraging habitat: Foraging range

A species-specific foraging range or home-range size is not provided. Breeding adults are territorial, and the Norfolk Island subspecies is reported to occupy territories probably larger than 2 ha.

Do not apply the Norfolk Island territory estimate automatically to mainland sites. Use repeated observations, call locations and habitat connectivity to identify the area used by birds at a project site.

Territory information: Norfolk Island territories are probably larger than 2 ha; mainland foraging range is not specified

Breeding habitat: Breeding biology

Breeding occurs in spring and early summer in Australia. Breeding habitat requires a suitable fork in a bush or tree, dense vegetation for concealment and enough arthropod prey to support the adults and nestlings.

Both sexes build the nest, incubate the eggs and care for the young. The nest is a shallow cup made from twigs, grass and bark, bound with spider web and lined with finer grass.

The available sources do not provide age at first breeding or lifespan. A Toolangi study of a migratory Victorian population found high site and pair fidelity, with an average of 66 percent of males returning to the same site. That study also recorded an average of 1.2 fledglings per pair per season.

Breeding season: September to January in Australia; September to February recorded for the Norfolk Island subspecies

Clutch size: 2 to 3 eggs

Incubation: Approximately 14 to 17 days, with 15 days given for the species account

Time in nest: Approximately 10 to 13 days, with 12 days given for the species account

Age at maturity: Not provided in the supplied documents

Lifespan: Not provided in the supplied documents

Average fledglings per pair: 1.2 per season at Toolangi, Victoria

Breeding habitat: Nest habitat

Nests are placed in a fork in a bush or tree, up to 6 m above ground. Dense shrubs and lower to middle vegetation provide the nest sites and cover described for the species.

At Toolangi, 45 percent of nesting attempts failed because of predation. Clearing, machinery movement and noisy work near dense breeding habitat can remove nests or cause adults to abandon nesting attempts.

  • Search dense shrubs and tree forks up to 6 m above ground before clearing during September to January.
  • Where a nest is found, establish a site-specific exclusion area and avoid disturbance until the young have fledged and the nest is no longer active, in accordance with project approvals and fauna handling procedures.
  • Schedule removal of dense breeding habitat outside the main breeding period where practicable.

Sheltering habitat: Cover and resting sites

The Golden Whistler shelters and rests in dense vegetation, particularly in the lower and middle storeys. The supplied documents do not describe species-specific hollows, burrows, dens, roost trees or refuge dimensions.

The species is usually solitary or in pairs and is most often associated with thickets, shrubby understorey and dense wooded habitat. It may use rainforest, secondary growth, eucalypt woodland, mallee, gardens and other wooded vegetation.

Juveniles disperse after breeding, but the supplied documents do not give dispersal distances for the Golden Whistler. Dense connected vegetation should be retained between habitat patches where practicable.

  • Retain dense shrub cover and lower branches beneath retained trees.
  • Protect vegetated links between woodland and mallee remnants during staging, access and rehabilitation works.
  • Inspect dense shrubs and forks before vegetation removal, because nests can be concealed above ground.

Sheltering habitat: Features not documented

No distinctive tracks, scats, burrows, tree hollows, roost structures, eyeshine or sloughs are described for this species in the supplied sources. No minimum shrub height, canopy cover, hollow size or refuge area is specified.

Threats: Clearing and fragmentation

For project work, the clearest documented risks are clearing of wooded habitat, loss of dense understorey, fragmentation and nest predation. The supplied documents do not provide Golden Whistler-specific evidence for disease, hydrology change or road mortality.

Clearing can remove breeding forks, dense understorey, foraging foliage and berry-producing plants. Fragmentation reduces the continuity of habitat used by a species that is associated with dense wooded areas and may also expose nests and birds to predators.

The conservation material for the Eastern Mallee describes broad declines in the mallee bird assemblage and identifies clearing and fragmentation as important pressures on mallee habitat. The Norfolk Island survey guidance records substantial habitat clearing and fragmentation, with a recent contraction in the listed subspecies' range.

  • Avoid clearing dense understorey where it occurs beneath or between retained woodland trees.
  • Stage works to keep connected habitat available until replacement vegetation has developed.
  • Include temporary access tracks, stockpiles, compounds and edge widening in the habitat loss assessment.

Threats: Breeding disturbance and predators

Nest predation was common in the Toolangi study, causing failure of 45 percent of nesting attempts. Construction traffic, vegetation removal and repeated human activity can increase exposure of nests and dependent young to disturbance and predators.

The species is territorial and most vocal during breeding, making repeated calling useful for locating potential breeding areas.

Nest attempts lost to predation at Toolangi: 45 percent

  • Increase pre-clearance inspection effort in September to January.
  • Use early morning call detection and targeted visual searches in dense habitat before works begin.
  • Keep machinery, personnel and domestic animals away from active nests under the project's approved fauna management procedures.

Threats: Fire and other pressures

The supplied sources describe fire history as a factor affecting the structure of Eastern Mallee vegetation, but they do not state a Golden Whistler-specific fire response or prescribe a fire interval. Avoid broad fuel reduction or post-fire clearing assumptions unless supported by site-specific ecological advice.

The supplied documents do not identify disease, hydrology change or road mortality as established threats for the Golden Whistler. These matters should still be checked where a project changes water regimes, increases traffic or introduces domestic animals, but no species-specific thresholds are available here.

Survey methodology: 1. Early morning area searches and transects

Survey effort should reflect the Golden Whistler’s behaviour and the habitat proposed for disturbance. The species is usually detected by its strong call, but it also forages quietly in lower and middle vegetation layers, so use both call and visual methods.

Search suitable wooded habitat on foot during the early morning, when calling and activity are more likely. Include dense understorey, thickets, mallee, eucalypt woodland, rainforest edges and retained vegetation corridors.

Search lower and middle vegetation layers, branches, twigs, foliage and bark for birds feeding alone or in pairs.

Record all calls and sightings, including birds outside the proposed disturbance footprint that may use retained habitat nearby.

Species size: 16 to 18 cm

Typical detection: Strong call, visual detection in lower and middle vegetation layers

Social behaviour: Usually solitary or in pairs

Breeding season: September to January

  • Walk systematic transects or conduct area searches through all habitat that may be cleared, excavated, fragmented or exposed to construction activity.
  • Repeat searches in suitable weather, avoiding heavy rain and strong wind that can reduce calling and observer detection.
  • Use the same route, search area and recording method for repeat surveys so results can be compared.

Survey methodology: 2. Call playback and response surveys

Use call playback only where it is authorised and included in the project survey plan. The species is territorial and vocal during breeding, so playback may improve detection during September to January.

Allow quiet listening periods after playback and record both solicited calls and sightings. Do not repeatedly play calls if birds show signs of disturbance or territorial stress.

Most suitable period for response surveys: Breeding season, September to January

Call range noted for the related Norfolk Island survey guidance: Calls may carry up to 300 m

Specific EPBC survey effort available: For Golden Whistler, Norfolk Island, 5 hours of broadcast surveys over 5 days

  • Place playback points through suitable habitat and at the edge of proposed clearing, while keeping observers outside the proposed disturbance area where practicable.
  • Record the point location, time, weather, playback sequence, response time, direction of response and whether the bird was seen.
  • Treat a call response as a detection unless the observer has a defensible reason to reject the identification.

Survey methodology: 3. Habitat and breeding checks

Inspect forks, thick shrubs and dense vegetation for the shallow cup nest described for the species. Nests may be up to 6 m above ground and can be difficult to see from ground level.

Check retained vegetation and proposed clearing areas for adults carrying nesting material, alarm calls, repeated visits to one location and fledglings.

Nest height: Up to 6 m above ground

Nest materials: Twigs, grass and bark bound with spider web, lined with finer grass

Clutch size: 2 to 3 eggs

Incubation: 15 days

Time in nest: 12 days

  • Search shrubs and trees systematically from more than one viewing angle where safe access allows.
  • Do not approach or handle an active nest unless authorised under the project fauna management plan and relevant wildlife approvals.
  • Extend the search to nearby retained vegetation because the species may move between feeding areas and nesting cover.

Survey methodology: Minimum effort and reporting

  • Use the project risk assessment, habitat extent and state survey requirements to set the final search effort, and document why the selected effort is sufficient.
  • For a project affecting Norfolk Island, apply the specific guideline of 10 hours of area searches or transect surveys over 5 days, plus 5 hours of broadcast surveys over 5 days, preferably early in the breeding season.
  • Have a suitably experienced ecologist review negative results where suitable habitat remains or where detection conditions were poor.
  • Record survey dates, start and finish times, observers, methods, locations, weather, habitat condition, effort, calls, sightings, nests and any management response.
  • Submit confirmed records, including negative results where required by the approval, to the relevant state or territory wildlife database and the Atlas of Living Australia where appropriate.
  • Retain photographs, spatial files, field sheets, call recordings and nest or habitat records with the project environmental records.

Before habitat disturbance: Avoid and minimise habitat loss

Plan the work around retained woodland and understorey, not only around individual birds. Golden Whistlers use wooded habitat from rainforest to mallee and obtain much of their food from leaves, bark and branches.

  • Avoid clearing dense understorey, thickets, mature shrubs and connected wooded vegetation wherever practicable.
  • Retain a continuous connection between habitat patches and avoid isolating retained vegetation within cleared areas.
  • Retain trees and shrubs that provide lower and middle storey foliage, branches, bark and nest forks.
  • Keep construction compounds, access tracks, spoil areas, lighting and noisy activities out of retained habitat where practicable.
  • Treat an active nest, repeated breeding activity or dependent fledgling as a reason to review the clearing boundary and work method.

Before habitat disturbance: Approvals and project controls

Confirm the taxon and jurisdiction before works begin. The supplied project brief identifies the species as vulnerable under the EPBC Act and in New South Wales, while the guideline specifically addresses the vulnerable Norfolk Island subspecies.

Check whether the proposed action may affect the nationally listed Norfolk Island subspecies, or another listed taxon, and obtain the required EPBC and state or territory approvals before clearing.

Use a fauna management plan that sets out survey effort, exclusion zones, clearing sequence, fauna handling authority, stop-work triggers, release sites and reporting requirements.

  • Confirm whether a referral, approval, scientific licence, animal ethics approval or state fauna permit is required before survey, capture, handling or relocation.
  • Engage an appropriately authorised fauna spotter catcher before vegetation removal or ground disturbance.
  • Schedule the highest-risk clearing away from September to January where practicable, particularly where breeding activity has been recorded.
  • Stage clearing so retained habitat is available before adjoining vegetation is removed.

Before habitat disturbance: Pre-clearance preparation

  • Complete a pre-clearance survey of all vegetation and ground disturbance areas, including access routes and temporary work areas.
  • Mark approved clearing limits and retained vegetation on plans and in the field before machinery enters the site.
  • Mark active nests, occupied breeding areas, dense understorey, habitat corridors and other features identified by the ecologist.
  • Install exclusion fencing where it can protect retained habitat without trapping birds or restricting their movement.
  • Brief machinery operators and supervisors on the species, mapped exclusion areas, stop-work triggers and the spotter catcher’s authority to halt work.

During habitat disturbance: Daily controls and machinery coordination

The fauna spotter catcher should control the immediate work area and maintain communication with the operator. Clearing should proceed slowly enough to detect birds, nests and other fauna before vegetation or ground material is moved.

  • Inspect the work area each day before machinery starts, including retained vegetation edges and any area changed by the previous day’s work.
  • Maintain a spotter catcher in the active clearing zone whenever vegetation removal or ground disturbance could injure fauna.
  • Keep machinery stopped while the spotter catcher checks a suspected bird, nest, fledgling or other fauna observation.
  • Use a staged approach, first removing non-habitat ground cover where approved, then progressively removing vegetation under direct observation.
  • Do not allow operators to work beyond the approved clearing boundary or move felled material until the spotter catcher has checked it.

During habitat disturbance: Animal encounters and handling

  • If a Golden Whistler is found, stop the nearby activity and allow the bird to move into retained habitat without pursuit where safe and practicable.
  • Do not catch, move or restrain the bird unless the person is authorised and the action is permitted by the relevant approval or wildlife authority.
  • If relocation is authorised, release the bird into nearby retained habitat with suitable wooded cover, lower and middle storey foliage and a connection to surrounding vegetation.
  • Do not release a bird into an isolated shrub, an active work zone or habitat that will be cleared later.
  • Place an injured bird in a quiet, secure container only under the approved fauna handling procedure, and transfer it promptly to a veterinarian or authorised wildlife carer.
  • Record the location, time, condition, action taken, release location, authorisation and outcome for every handled or injured animal.

During habitat disturbance: Habitat features and stop-work triggers

  • Stop work if an active nest, eggs, dependent young, a fledgling unable to move safely, or repeated adult visits to a nest site are identified.
  • Stop work if the clearing boundary, machinery movement or falling vegetation could affect a mapped nest or retained breeding habitat.
  • Protect nest-bearing forks, dense shrubs and connected understorey until the ecologist and project manager confirm the approved response.
  • Treat discovery of a previously unmapped habitat corridor or substantial retained woodland as a trigger to review the clearing method.
  • Before moving felled trees, logs, rocks or other ground material, check for fauna and follow the approved fauna management procedure, even though these features are not identified as specific Golden Whistler nesting structures in the supplied sources.

After habitat disturbance: Post-clearance inspection

Post-clearing checks should confirm that no bird, nest or dependent young has been left within the work area and that retained habitat controls remain effective.

  • Inspect the cleared area, vegetation piles, retained habitat edge and access routes at the end of each clearing stage and again before the area is handed to construction crews.
  • Check retained shrubs and tree forks for nests, fledglings and birds showing injury or abnormal behaviour.
  • Remove or secure temporary hazards such as open pits, exposed pipes, loose netting and unprotected water containers that could trap fauna.
  • Keep exclusion fencing, signage and no-go areas in place until the relevant construction risk has ended.

After habitat disturbance: Monitoring and reporting

  • Monitor retained habitat during construction for Golden Whistler calls, sightings, breeding activity and changes in understorey condition.
  • Investigate repeated records near machinery, lighting, access tracks or newly cleared edges and apply additional controls through the fauna management plan.
  • Report all incidents, injuries, nest discoveries, captures, relocations, mortalities, stop-work events and corrective actions to the project environmental officer.
  • Submit required records to the relevant state or territory wildlife database and provide approval reports to the responsible regulator.

After habitat disturbance: Offsets and residual impacts

  • Recalculate the area and condition of Golden Whistler habitat lost after construction, including temporary disturbance that will not be restored promptly.
  • Apply any offset, compensatory habitat or approval condition required by the EPBC Act or state or territory approval.
  • Do not treat an offset as a substitute for retaining suitable wooded habitat and connected understorey within the project area.

Rehabilitation actions: Rebuild suitable habitat

Rehabilitation should recreate the features the species uses for feeding, shelter and nesting. Success depends on establishing connected wooded vegetation with a functioning lower and middle storey, not only planting canopy trees.

Foraging position: Lower and middle tree levels, including leaves and bark

Nest location: Fork in a bush or tree, up to 6 m above ground

Food: Insects, spiders, other small arthropods and berries

  • Replant locally appropriate native trees and shrubs that will develop dense foliage, branches, bark and sheltered forks.
  • Prioritise species and vegetation structure that match the pre-clearing rainforest, eucalypt woodland, mallee or other wooded habitat at the site.
  • Create continuous connections between retained vegetation and rehabilitation areas rather than isolated planting islands.
  • Use local provenance plants where required by the project approval or rehabilitation specification.

Rehabilitation actions: Protect developing vegetation

  • Control environmental weeds so planted shrubs and regenerating understorey can establish dense cover.
  • Manage browsing, grazing and other damage to young plants using methods approved for the site.
  • Control introduced predators where they are identified as a project or reserve management issue, without harming native fauna.
  • Retain naturally fallen branches and suitable woody debris where they do not create a fire or safety hazard.
  • Use nest boxes only where a qualified ecologist identifies a need and confirms that they are suitable, because the supplied sources describe natural nests in forks and shrubs rather than dependence on hollows.

Rehabilitation actions: Fire, monitoring and success measures

Breeding period to consider in monitoring: September to January

Useful detection method: Early morning area searches or transects, supported by call records

  • Prepare fire management around the requirements of the rehabilitated vegetation and retained habitat, avoiding unplanned loss of dense understorey during establishment.
  • Inspect rehabilitation areas for plant survival, weed cover, browsing, connectivity and development of lower and middle storey structure.
  • Conduct repeat early morning bird surveys using consistent routes and effort, and record Golden Whistler calls, sightings, pairs, breeding activity and use of rehabilitated habitat.
  • Use the pre-disturbance records as the baseline and set project-specific success measures for native plant survival, vegetation cover, connected habitat and confirmed Golden Whistler use.
  • Continue monitoring until the approval authority or rehabilitation plan criteria are met, and repair failed plantings or broken habitat connections.

Sources