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Golden-tipped Bat (Phoniscus papuensis)

The Golden-tipped Bat is a small insectivorous bat found in scattered populations along the east coast of Australia, mainly in rainforest gullies and adjoining wet and dry sclerophyll forest. It is listed as Vulnerable in New South Wales and may be affected by clearing of riparian rainforest, dense understorey, roosting nests and mature trees on development sites.

Conservation status

New South Wales, Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016: Vulnerable.

Breeding season

The supplied documents do not give confirmed months for mating, births, dependent young or dispersal. The species is not described as migratory, and roost switching may occur throughout the year. Treat suitable habitat as potentially occupied in every month unless current survey and specialist assessment establish otherwise.

Before clearing, use current targeted survey and specialist advice to identify occupied roosts, maternity roosts and connected foraging habitat. A single negative inspection does not exclude use because the species changes roosts regularly.

  • Roost switching: Bats use multiple roosts and change roosts regularly. Roost switching may occur throughout the year.
  • Highest clearing risk: No month is supported as a peak risk period because breeding and young-dependent periods are not dated. Clearing can affect roosts, maternity habitat, regularly used alternative roosts and spider-rich foraging habitat in any month.

Identification

The Golden-tipped Bat is a small forest bat with distinctive golden-tipped fur. It is most likely to be encountered during targeted harp trapping, mist-netting or roost inspection rather than by casual observation.

Adults have dark brown, curly fur with bright golden tips. The golden colouring extends along the wings, legs and tail.

The muzzle is short, pointed and overhanging. The ears are pointed and funnel-shaped.

Weight: About 6 grams

Wingspan: About 25 centimetres

Fur: Dark brown and curly, with bright golden tips on the body, wings, legs and tail

Identification: Distinguishing features

The combination of very small body size, curly dark brown fur with golden tips, a short overhanging muzzle and pointed funnel-shaped ears supports identification.

The supplied sources do not provide a comparison table with other small forest bats. Identification should therefore be confirmed by an experienced bat ecologist using morphology, photographs, measurements and, where appropriate, genetic or echolocation analysis.

  • Do not rely on habitat alone, because the species overlaps with other small bats in rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest.
  • Record the capture method, sex, forearm or other standard measurements, photographs and release location.
  • Use the current accepted name Phoniscus papuensis, noting Kerivoula papuensis as a former name.

Identification: Field signs and detection

Roosts may be found in abandoned hanging nests of Yellow-throated Scrubwrens and Brown Gerygones. The bats modify these nests by creating an access hole on the underside.

Other possible roost signs include a bat or small colony under thick moss on a tree trunk, in a tree hollow, within dense foliage or among epiphytes.

The species feeds mainly on web-building spiders. Spider remains or web disturbance may occur near roosts or feeding areas, but the supplied sources do not describe a reliable diagnostic feeding sign, call, track, scat or eyeshine.

  • Inspect suspended scrubwren and gerygone nests before vegetation removal where the habitat is suitable.
  • Treat an underside access hole in an otherwise suitable hanging nest as a possible roost sign until assessed by a suitably qualified person.
  • Do not disturb a suspected roost to confirm occupancy without following the project fauna handling and wildlife permitting requirements.

Distribution: States and regions

The Australian range follows the east coast in scattered locations from Cape York Peninsula in Queensland to south of Eden in southern New South Wales. The species also occurs in New Guinea.

In Queensland, the species is recorded from the Queensland portion of its east coast range, including South Eastern Queensland and the Clarence Lowlands, Clarence Sandstones, Scenic Rim and Woodenbong subregions listed in the NSW profile.

In New South Wales, records extend from the north coast and tablelands through the Sydney Basin and south-eastern ranges to south of Eden. The NSW profile lists known or predicted occurrence in the New England Tablelands, NSW North Coast, South East Corner, South Eastern Highlands, South Eastern Queensland and Sydney Basin regions.

The species has recently been trapped just inside the Victorian border. The NSW profile also identifies predicted occurrence in East Gippsland Lowlands, but does not establish a confirmed Victorian population.

  • New England Tablelands: Northeast Forest Lands, Stanthorpe Plateau, Walcha Plateau and Wongwibinda Plateau.
  • NSW North Coast: Barrington, Cataract, Chaelundi, Coffs Coast and Escarpment, Comboyne Plateau, Dalmorton, Karuah Manning, Macleay Hastings, Mummel Escarpment, Rocky River Gorge, Upper Hunter, Upper Manning and Washpool.
  • South East Corner and South Eastern Highlands: Bateman, South East Coastal Ranges and Kybeyan-Gourock, with East Gippsland Lowlands predicted.
  • Sydney Basin: Illawarra, Jervis, Pittwater, Sydney Cataract, Wyong and Yengo, with Ettrema and Moss Vale predicted.
  • South Eastern Queensland: Clarence Lowlands, Clarence Sandstones, Scenic Rim and Woodenbong.

Distribution: Strongholds and population information

The supplied documents do not identify a national population size, population trend, discrete strongholds or named subpopulations.

Records are described as scattered along the east coast. A site with suitable rainforest gullies, adjoining moist forest and intact understorey should be treated as potentially occupied even where local records are absent.

National population size: Not reported in the supplied documents

Population trend: Not reported in the supplied documents

Distribution pattern: Scattered east coast locations from Cape York Peninsula to south of Eden, with a recent record just inside Victoria

International range: New Guinea

Habitat: Habitat types

The Golden-tipped Bat uses rainforest and adjoining wet and dry sclerophyll forest. Habitat is centred on moist gullies and small streams, but maternity roosts and foraging areas can occur upslope and away from water.

Recorded habitat includes rainforest, adjacent wet and dry sclerophyll forest, tall open forest, Casuarina-dominated riparian forest and coastal Melaleuca forest.

The species occurs in rainforest gullies on small first and second-order streams and in forest on mid and upper slopes.

  • Retain rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest in gullies.
  • Retain dense understorey patches on mid and upper slopes.
  • Protect riparian vegetation along small streams, including vegetation that appears narrow or disturbed.

Habitat: Structural features

Important habitat features include suspended bird nests, dense foliage, epiphytes, thick moss on trunks, tree hollows and intact understorey.

The species is associated with wet forest structure and may use large eucalypts and other mature trees within the forest community. Dunn's white gum moist forest is identified as habitat for the species and other tree-dwelling mammals.

  • Map hanging Yellow-throated Scrubwren and Brown Gerygone nests before clearing.
  • Retain mature and hollow-bearing trees, even where they are outside the immediate riparian strip.
  • Avoid breaking connections between rainforest gullies, streamside vegetation and adjoining forest.

Habitat: Elevation and climate

The species has been recorded from suitable habitat up to 1000 metres. The supplied sources do not define a lower elevation limit or a precise temperature or rainfall threshold.

Recorded elevation: Up to 1000 metres

Climate and moisture association: Rainforest, wet forest, riparian forest and adjacent dry sclerophyll forest

Foraging habitat: Diet

The Golden-tipped Bat is a specialist predator of small web-building spiders. It forages in rainforest and sclerophyll forest, generally within 2 kilometres of a roost.

The diet consists almost exclusively of web-building spiders, particularly orb-weavers and big-jawed spiders.

The supplied sources do not identify particular plant species that provide prey. Retaining vegetation structure that supports spider webs is therefore more relevant than retaining a named food plant.

  • Retain dense understorey, foliage, vines and other vegetation that supports web-building spiders.
  • Avoid unnecessary removal of forest edges and understorey around rainforest gullies and small streams.
  • Do not assume that clearing outside the immediate roost area has no effect, because feeding habitat may extend across mid and upper slopes.

Foraging habitat: Foraging range and flight area

Bats may fly up to 2 kilometres from roosts to forage in rainforest and sclerophyll forest on mid and upper slopes.

Foraging habitat can therefore include connected forest beyond the stream line and beyond the location of a detected roost.

Maximum reported roost to foraging distance: Up to 2 kilometres

Foraging settings: Rainforest and wet or dry sclerophyll forest on mid and upper slopes

  • Assess suitable forest within at least 2 kilometres of a known or suspected roost when planning clearing or major lighting changes.
  • Maintain vegetated links between roosting gullies and adjoining forest where practicable.
  • Limit night lighting directed into rainforest edges, riparian vegetation and retained understorey.

Breeding habitat: Breeding biology

Breeding information is limited. The species has one reported breeding cycle per year, and recent research provides evidence that some females may produce more than one litter when food resources, particularly orb-weaving spiders, increase.

The supplied documents do not provide a confirmed mating month, birth month, gestation period, litter size, age at maturity or lifespan.

A 2023 study reports the first evidence of polyoestry in the species. The observed response may be facultative and associated with increased prey availability.

Breeding cycle: One cycle per year is reported in the NSW species profile

Polyoestry: Evidence has been reported, apparently as a facultative response to resource pulses

Gestation: Not reported in the supplied documents

Litter size: Not reported in the supplied documents

Age at maturity: Not reported in the supplied documents

Lifespan: Not reported in the supplied documents

Breeding habitat: Breeding habitat features

Maternity roosts may occur away from water. One maternity roost was found 450 metres upslope from the nearest watercourse, in a broken bough.

This means that breeding habitat assessment should extend beyond streamside rainforest and include suitable trees and dense vegetation on adjoining slopes.

Recorded maternity roost distance from water: 450 metres upslope from the nearest watercourse

  • Inspect broken boughs, tree hollows, dense foliage and epiphytes in suitable forest before clearing.
  • Retain intact vegetation between streams and upslope forest where maternity roosts may occur.
  • Treat a suspected maternity roost as sensitive habitat and obtain specialist advice before disturbance.

Sheltering habitat: Primary roosts

The species uses several small, flexible roost types and changes roosts regularly. Roosts are often associated with rainforest gullies and small streams, but maternity roosts can be upslope.

The main reported roosts are usually abandoned hanging nests of Yellow-throated Scrubwrens and Brown Gerygones. Bats modify the nests by making an access hole on the underside.

Bats may also roost under thick moss on tree trunks, in tree hollows, dense foliage and epiphytes.

  • Retain hanging scrubwren and gerygone nests in riparian and rainforest vegetation.
  • Inspect tree hollows, broken boughs, dense foliage, epiphytes and moss-covered trunks before vegetation removal.
  • Include retained trees and vegetation around small first and second-order streams in site protection measures.

Sheltering habitat: Roost use

Individuals may roost alone or in small colonies. Colonies can contain males and females together, a single sex, or up to approximately 20 bats.

Bats use multiple roosts and change roosts regularly. A negative inspection of one roost does not demonstrate that the surrounding habitat is unused.

Roosting pattern: Solitary or small colonies

Maximum reported colony size: Approximately 20 bats

Roost switching: Uses multiple roosts and changes roosts regularly

  • Search more than one potential roost where a project may affect suitable habitat.
  • Retain a connected group of suitable roosting structures rather than protecting only a single occupied nest.
  • Schedule repeat inspections if clearing is staged or if habitat remains suitable after an initial inspection.

Threats: Clearing and fragmentation

The main project risks are loss and fragmentation of rainforest, riparian vegetation, dense understorey and roost structures. Fire, chemicals and changes to vegetation condition can affect both roosting and spider-rich foraging habitat.

Clearing riparian rainforest removes important roosting and foraging habitat. Clearing understorey on mid and upper slopes can reduce foraging habitat.

Fragmentation can separate roosting gullies from forest used for feeding. Loss of hanging bird nests can remove a specialised roost structure.

  • Avoid clearing rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest in gullies.
  • Retain dense understorey on mid and upper slopes.
  • Protect hanging Yellow-throated Scrubwren and Brown Gerygone nests.
  • Keep forest connections between small streams, rainforest gullies and adjoining slopes.

Threats: Fire and vegetation change

Inappropriately planned hazard reduction burns and high-intensity unplanned fires may burn into rainforest habitat.

The NSW advice recommends excluding fire from rainforest communities and using a fire frequency appropriate to both roosting and foraging habitat.

  • Exclude planned fire from rainforest communities where consistent with approved fire management requirements.
  • Protect retained rainforest gullies and moist forest from construction-related ignition sources.
  • Assess whether fire would remove moss, dense foliage, epiphytes, understorey or hanging nests used for roosting.

Threats: Construction, roads and hydrology

The supplied documents identify unlawful forestry operations and habitat fragmentation as threats. They do not provide species-specific studies of road mortality or road crossing rates.

Because roosts are concentrated around small streams and rainforest gullies, changes to drainage, water quality, streamside vegetation or access to retained forest may reduce habitat quality.

  • Avoid placing access tracks, stockpiles and compounds in rainforest gullies and riparian vegetation.
  • Maintain streamside vegetation and prevent sediment, chemicals and concrete washout from entering small streams.
  • Use fauna-sensitive lighting and avoid directing lights into retained roosting and foraging vegetation.
  • Record and investigate any bat mortality associated with roads or construction traffic, because species-specific road data are not provided.

Threats: Chemicals, weeds and predators

Pesticides and other chemicals used in or near habitat are identified as threats. These may reduce spider prey or affect bats directly.

Lantana and vines can degrade rainforest and adjacent wet and dry sclerophyll forest and alter vegetation structure. The supplied documents do not identify a species-specific predator or disease threat.

  • Avoid pesticide use in or beside retained rainforest, wet forest and riparian vegetation unless necessary and appropriately controlled.
  • Control lantana and invasive vines without removing the dense native vegetation used for roosting and spider prey.
  • Do not infer that the absence of a documented predator or disease threat means the species is unaffected by general fauna hazards.

Survey methodology: 1. Review habitat and plan the survey

The Golden-tipped Bat is a small, threatened NSW bat that uses rainforest gullies, wet and dry sclerophyll forest, riparian vegetation and dense understorey. Survey should target roosts and foraging habitat, particularly first- and second-order streams, rainforest gullies and connected forest within 2 km of potential roosts.

Map rainforest gullies, first- and second-order streams, riparian vegetation, wet and dry sclerophyll forest, dense understorey, epiphytes, mossy trunks, hollow-bearing trees and suspended bird nests before selecting survey locations.

Include suitable habitat within 2 km of potential roosts because the species may fly up to 2 km from roosts to forage.

Treat the presence of Yellow-throated Scrubwren and Brown Gerygone nests as a survey priority because the bat commonly modifies these nests for roosting.

Adult body mass: About 6 g

Wingspan: About 25 cm

Known foraging distance from roosts: Up to 2 km

Survey methodology: 2. Dusk emergence and roost inspection

Inspect likely roost structures during daylight, without opening, handling or damaging nests, moss, foliage or epiphytes.

Observe likely roosts from dusk through the main evening emergence period, using night-vision or thermal equipment where available and where its use is permitted.

Target suspended Yellow-throated Scrubwren and Brown Gerygone nests with an access hole underneath, tree hollows, dense foliage, epiphytes, moss on trunks and broken limbs.

Repeat observations at suitable roosts because individuals and small colonies use multiple roosts and change roosts regularly.

Typical roost group: An individual bat or a small colony, with up to approximately 20 bats recorded

Maternity roost location recorded in NSW: 450 m upslope from the nearest watercourse

Survey methodology: 3. Acoustic and capture survey

Use ultrasonic detectors along rainforest gullies, first- and second-order streams, riparian edges, mid-slopes and upper slopes adjoining dense forest to identify nocturnal bat activity.

Where species-level identification is not reliable, treat acoustic records as indicative and confirm them with an appropriately authorised capture or roost inspection method.

Use harp traps or mist nets only under the relevant animal ethics, wildlife research and handling approvals, and place them where they will not obstruct likely flight paths or damage vegetation.

Conduct repeated surveys in suitable weather, avoiding rain, strong wind and unusually cold conditions that reduce bat activity or create unsafe conditions.

Dietary detection note: The species is a specialist feeder on small web-building spiders, mainly orb-weavers and big-jawed spiders

Survey limitation: The supplied documents do not specify a mandated number of survey nights, detector hours, transect length, trap nights or survey area

Survey methodology: Minimum effort and reporting

  • Set the number of survey nights, detector hours, capture nights and survey locations from the size of the disturbance area, the amount of suitable habitat and the applicable state survey guidance, because the supplied documents do not prescribe a species-specific effort standard.
  • Survey both potential roost habitat and connected foraging habitat, rather than relying only on open-air detector sites.
  • Record survey dates, start and finish times, weather, wind, rainfall, detector and trap locations, equipment settings, observer names, effort, habitat condition and all non-detections.
  • Record the location and condition of every potential roost, including nest type, access hole, tree hollow, moss, foliage, epiphytes and nearby watercourse.
  • Submit confirmed records, negative results where required, photographs, acoustic files and capture data to the relevant state wildlife database and provide records to the NSW BioNet system for NSW projects.
  • Report the species as Phoniscus papuensis and note the former name Kerivoula papuensis when matching older records.

Before habitat disturbance: Avoid and minimise

Avoid clearing rainforest gullies, riparian vegetation and dense understorey wherever practicable. The work plan should protect both roost sites and the connected forest used for foraging.

  • Retain rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest in gullies, especially beside small first- and second-order streams.
  • Retain dense understorey on mid and upper slopes because it provides foraging habitat.
  • Retain hollow-bearing trees, broken limbs, mossy trunks, epiphytes, dense foliage and suspended Yellow-throated Scrubwren and Brown Gerygone nests.
  • Maintain connected forest between retained gullies and adjacent wet or dry sclerophyll forest, particularly where the retained habitat is within 2 km of a known or potential roost.
  • Avoid fragmenting riparian rainforest and avoid removing nest structures that may be used as roosts.

Before habitat disturbance: Approvals and work planning

Confirm the current Commonwealth and state conservation status before work starts; the species is not listed under the EPBC Act and is Vulnerable in NSW.

Check whether the project affects another threatened species, ecological community or protected matter, and obtain all required state wildlife, animal ethics, clearing and handling approvals.

Prepare a fauna management plan that maps retained habitat, no-go areas, potential roosts, access routes, daily controls, stop-work triggers, handling arrangements and reporting responsibilities.

Stage clearing so that retained rainforest gullies, riparian vegetation and connected forest remain available while other works proceed.

Schedule works to avoid periods identified by the project ecologist as important for roosting, maternity activity or breeding, noting that the supplied documents do not define a fixed breeding season.

Before habitat disturbance: Pre-clearance preparation

  • Complete a pre-clearance inspection of all vegetation and structures that could be removed or disturbed.
  • Mark no-go habitat, retained trees, riparian rainforest, first- and second-order streams, potential roost nests and dense understorey before machinery enters the site.
  • Use exclusion fencing where it can protect retained gullies, riparian vegetation, understorey and identified roost features without blocking necessary fauna movement.
  • Brief machinery operators on the marked exclusion areas, the spotter catcher's authority to stop work and the procedure for an animal or roost discovery.
  • Check for recent bat activity immediately before clearing if a potential roost cannot be retained.

During habitat disturbance: Daily controls and machinery interface

Clearing should proceed as a controlled, supervised activity. The fauna spotter catcher must be able to see the work face, communicate directly with operators and stop work when a bat, roost or unexpected habitat feature is found.

  • Inspect exclusion fencing, no-go markers, access routes and retained vegetation at the start of each shift.
  • Use a qualified and authorised fauna spotter catcher where required by the approval or fauna management plan.
  • Keep machinery outside marked rainforest gullies, riparian buffers, retained understorey and roost exclusion areas.
  • Clear slowly towards retained habitat where the approved method requires fauna movement away from the work face, while preventing animals from being driven into active machinery or traffic.
  • Stop machinery immediately when the spotter catcher calls a stop, and do not resume until the animal, roost or habitat feature has been assessed and the spotter catcher releases the area.

During habitat disturbance: Roosts and habitat features

  • Do not fell or disturb a tree, limb, nest, mossy trunk, epiphyte, dense foliage patch or hollow until it has been inspected for Golden-tipped Bat use where the feature is within the approved impact area.
  • Treat a suspended Yellow-throated Scrubwren or Brown Gerygone nest with an underside access hole as a potential roost and retain it wherever practicable.
  • Do not relocate a suspected occupied roost unless the approved fauna management plan and the relevant authority permit that action.
  • If a hollow-bearing tree must be removed, use the approved staged-felling and inspection procedure, keep people clear of the fall zone and inspect the tree and ground immediately after it is felled.
  • Keep felled material, logs and dense vegetation intact until the fauna spotter catcher has checked them, and do not burn or chip material that could contain an animal.

During habitat disturbance: Animal response, records and stop-work triggers

  • If a Golden-tipped Bat is found, stop work in the immediate area and keep noise, people and machinery away from the animal.
  • Do not handle the bat unless the person is authorised, trained and covered by the relevant approval, and use appropriate disease, bite and animal-welfare controls.
  • Allow an uninjured bat to leave on its own where safe, or relocate it only under the approved procedure to nearby retained habitat that provides suitable rainforest, wet forest, cover and roosting opportunities.
  • Keep any captured bat in a secure, quiet, ventilated container for the minimum time needed for assessment and release, following the handling approval.
  • Transfer an injured or sick bat to an appropriately experienced wildlife carer or veterinarian as soon as practicable, and record the transfer.
  • Stop work and notify the project ecologist and relevant authority if a maternity roost, occupied roost, injured bat, dead bat, unexpected colony or unapproved impact to rainforest or riparian habitat is found.
  • Record the date, time, precise location, habitat feature, condition of the bat, photographs, identification method, action taken, release location, handler and approvals used.

After habitat disturbance: Post-clearance inspection

Post-clearance checks must confirm that retained roosting and foraging habitat has not been damaged and that fauna controls remain effective during construction and operation.

  • Inspect the cleared area, retained forest edge, streams, gullies and marked roost features after each clearing stage.
  • Check retained nests, hollows, moss, epiphytes, dense foliage and broken limbs for damage or signs of use.
  • Search the ground and retained vegetation for injured, dead or displaced bats before machinery leaves the work area.
  • Repair exclusion fencing and replace damaged no-go markers before the next work shift.

After habitat disturbance: Monitoring and reporting

  • Repeat acoustic monitoring, roost observations or other approved surveys where the project removes or fragments known habitat, affects a known roost or creates a long-term edge beside retained rainforest.
  • Compare post-work activity with the pre-work survey using the same locations and comparable conditions where practicable.
  • Report all detections, injuries, mortalities, roost impacts, relocations, rehabilitation actions, incidents and corrective actions to the approving authority and project environmental manager.
  • Submit confirmed records and supporting evidence to the relevant state wildlife database, including NSW BioNet for NSW records.

After habitat disturbance: Controls and residual impacts

  • Maintain no-go areas, riparian protection, understorey protection, weed controls and fire controls for the period specified in the approval or fauna management plan.
  • Review whether retained habitat remains connected to rainforest, wet sclerophyll forest and riparian vegetation used by the species.
  • Apply approved offsets or other compensatory measures where residual impacts remain after avoidance and minimisation, and document the basis for the measure in the project approvals.

Rehabilitation actions: Restore habitat structure

Rehabilitation should rebuild the structural features used by the Golden-tipped Bat, not just replace canopy cover. Priority outcomes are connected rainforest and wet forest, dense understorey, riparian cover and secure roost opportunities.

  • Replant locally appropriate rainforest and wet sclerophyll species in gullies, beside first- and second-order streams and along riparian edges.
  • Re-establish dense understorey on mid and upper slopes, using locally sourced plants suited to the pre-clearing vegetation community.
  • Reconnect retained rainforest gullies with adjacent wet and dry sclerophyll forest where clearing has created a break.
  • Retain naturally regenerating vegetation, fallen timber, mossy trunks, epiphytes and dense foliage unless they create an approved safety or access risk.
  • Do not use fire in rainforest rehabilitation areas, and manage fire so that high-intensity fire does not burn into rainforest habitat.

Rehabilitation actions: Replace roost opportunities

  • Retain existing Yellow-throated Scrubwren and Brown Gerygone nests wherever practicable, including nests that are not currently occupied.
  • Retain or reinstate hollow-bearing trees, broken limbs, mossy trunks, dense foliage and epiphyte-covered structures within the rehabilitated area.
  • Use nest boxes or other artificial roost structures only where specified by the project ecologist and approved by the relevant authority, because the supplied documents do not establish a standard box design for this species.
  • Place any approved artificial roosts in retained or rehabilitated gullies and monitor them for use rather than assuming installation has created a functional roost.

Rehabilitation actions: Manage threats and measure success

  • Control lantana and invasive vines so that they do not replace the dense but native understorey or alter rainforest and wet forest structure.
  • Prevent pesticides and other chemicals from entering retained or rehabilitated habitat, and follow the approved chemical management plan near roosting and foraging areas.
  • Manage feral predators and herbivores where they threaten revegetation or the structure of retained habitat, using approved control methods.
  • Monitor plant survival, canopy and understorey cover, streamside vegetation, nest and hollow retention, weed cover, fire damage and bat activity at defined intervals in the rehabilitation plan.
  • Use repeated acoustic detections, roost observations or approved capture records as fauna success measures, and investigate a decline in activity rather than relying only on plant survival.
  • Continue monitoring until the project ecologist and approving authority agree that habitat structure, connectivity and roost features are functioning and maintenance controls can be reduced.

Sources