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Glandular Frog (Dryopsophus subglandulosus)

The Glandular Frog is a medium-sized stream-associated tree frog found at upland sites from northern New South Wales to southern Queensland. It breeds in permanent or semi-permanent stream pools and is vulnerable to clearing, riparian degradation, altered flows, disease, fire and sediment pollution, so construction and infrastructure works near suitable streams require careful survey and hygiene controls.

Conservation status

Commonwealth, EPBC Act 1999: Vulnerable.

Breeding season

The Glandular Frog breeds in stream pools during spring and early summer. Males call from low vegetation or logs, eggs are attached to submerged rocks, and tadpoles remain in slow-flowing water for about 3 to 4 months. Plan clearing, bank disturbance and dewatering to avoid the breeding period and the following metamorph period.

Reproductive mode: Egg laying, with larval development in water.

Clutch size: 292 to 425 eggs in a single clump.

Incubation: About 8 to 10 days.

Size at hatching: About 2.1 mm.

Age at maturity: Not recorded.

Nest or egg sites: A single adhesive clump is attached to submerged rocks in stream pools, about 1 to 7 cm below the water surface.

Breeding frequency: One clutch per year.

Confirm timing at each site through local surveys and rainfall and temperature conditions, because calling and breeding increase during or after light rain and in warmer weather.

  • Calling: Males call mainly at night during spring and early summer, with the strongest documented calling association in October and November. Calling increases with light rain and warmer temperatures.
  • Egg laying: Egg laying occurs during spring and early summer. Eggs are attached to submerged rocks 1 to 7 cm below the surface in shaded stream pools.
  • Tadpoles: Eggs hatch after about 8 to 10 days. Tadpoles occupy shallow, slow-flowing stream sections for about 3 to 4 months and generally remain until metamorphosis from December to February.
  • Metamorphs: Metamorphosis generally occurs from December to February. Newly transformed frogs use moist riparian cover, including vegetation, rocks, crevices and logs.
  • Active period: Adults are active by day and night, particularly in wet and warm conditions. Activity and calling are documented from winter through summer, with the strongest activity associated with spring and early summer.
  • Winter inactivity: Winter dormancy is indicated by darkening of the dorsal surface, but the documents do not identify fixed months or specific overwintering shelters. During cooler periods, retain moist ground cover, rocks, crevices, logs and riparian vegetation.
  • Highest clearing risk: Risk is highest from spring through late summer, when adults may be calling, eggs and tadpoles occupy stream pools, and metamorphs use riparian cover. Avoid clearing, bank disturbance, in-stream works and dewatering during this period wherever occupied habitat is present.

Identification

The Glandular Frog is a medium-sized pelodryadid with a smooth green to olive dorsal surface and a distinctive dark and pale gold facial stripe. It is most often detected by its breeding call, eyeshine at night, or tadpoles in shallow, slow-flowing stream margins.

Adults are typically olive to bright green, sometimes with light brown flecks and blotches. The sides and limbs are green, the underside is coarsely granular and white, and the groin, armpits and lower hindlimbs are light yellow.

A dark brown stripe runs from the snout through the eye and along the ear, with a pale gold stripe above it. A narrow white stripe runs along the green upper lip towards the glandular area above the arm. The head is broad, the tympanum is indistinct beneath a thick glandular ridge, and the eyes are golden with a lighter upper half.

The fingers are unwebbed and the toes are about half webbed, with large terminal discs. The back may darken to almost black during winter dormancy.

Identification: Size and sexes

Females are larger than males. Females reach up to 50 mm snout to vent length, while males reach about 40 mm. No adult body-weight range is provided in the documents.

Tadpoles grow to about 37 mm total length, with a body length of about 14 mm. They have a streamlined body, shallow translucent tail fins with dark flecks, a rounded snout and dorsolateral eyes.

Female adult size: Up to 50 mm snout to vent length

Male adult size: Up to about 40 mm snout to vent length

Tadpole size: Up to 37 mm total length

Adult weight: Not reported

Identification: Similar species and field signs

The closest identification issue is separation from Davies’ Tree Frog, Litoria daviesae. Adults and tadpoles are similar, and their male breeding calls are also similar. Distribution is the main distinction in the available guidance: the Glandular Frog occurs north of Cunnawarra National Park, while Davies’ Tree Frog occupies the southern part of the former range.

It can also resemble Litoria citropa complex frogs. The reduced or absent white upper-jaw stripe, green sides, reddish-brown hind thighs and the facial dark stripe with a gold stripe above it are useful features when comparing specimens.

Males usually call from low vegetation such as Juncus, or from logs above or beside the water. The call is usually a sequence of 5 to 7 repeated ‘or-āk’ notes. Calling is mainly nocturnal, but sporadic daytime calling occurs. Tadpoles have a distinctive funnel-like oral disc without tooth rows or jaw sheaths, and move over rocky substrates using suctioning mouthparts. Adults may be located by eyeshine during night searches.

  • Use call, distribution and adult morphology together where Davies’ Tree Frog may occur.
  • Search low riparian vegetation, logs, stream margins and shallow slow-flowing water during suitable wet conditions.
  • Handle frogs and equipment under amphibian hygiene procedures to reduce disease transmission.

Distribution: States and bioregional setting

The species has a small, disjunct distribution along the eastern escarpment of the Great Dividing Range. Records are concentrated in upland stream systems of northern New South Wales and extend into southern Queensland.

In New South Wales, the current southern range limit is considered to be Cunnawarra National Park, with the New England National Park area and the upper Styx River catchment among the documented northern New South Wales areas. The range extends north from the New England Tablelands into Queensland, reaching Girraween National Park.

The species occurs at low density in stream habitats along the eastern escarpment of the Great Dividing Range. The documents identify the New England Tablelands, northern New South Wales ranges and southern Queensland uplands as the relevant regional settings.

New South Wales range: From Cunnawarra National Park north through upland areas including the New England Tablelands

Queensland range: Extends into southern Queensland to Girraween National Park

Elevation: Current conservation advice gives elevations above 600 m

Distribution: Strongholds and population status

Known areas include stream systems around the New England National Park area, the upper Styx River catchment and upland sites between northern New South Wales and Girraween National Park. The species is also recorded from disturbed environments where fringing riparian vegetation remains.

The population is disjunct and occurs at low density. It was once common in parts of the New England Tablelands but was infrequently recorded from the 1970s to the 1990s. More recent records have become more frequent in some areas, but the species is listed as Vulnerable because its distribution is limited and ongoing declines are suspected.

EPBC listing basis: Vulnerable, with occurrence at 10 or fewer locations identified in the listing assessment

Population trend: Historical declines are documented; ongoing declines are suspected from climate change, clearing and the 2019 to 2020 bushfires

2019 to 2020 fire response: Estimated immediate population decline of 23 percent across the species, with an estimated 50 percent decline within fire-affected areas

Protected area coverage: Approximately one third of the current distribution is within protected areas

Distribution: Local survey records

In the upper Styx River catchment, the species was recorded in both trout release and trout-free streams. The 2005 to 2006 survey detected it at 9 trout release sites and 4 control sites, with minimum site population estimates ranging from 5 to more than 50 individuals at trout release sites and from 5 to more than 10 individuals at control sites.

Follow-up monitoring used permanent 100 m transects. No measurable suppression by trout was demonstrated in the available short-term comparisons, but the studies noted limited statistical power and recommended continued monitoring.

2005 to 2006 survey area: More than 75 sites across approximately 297,000 hectares

Glandular Frog detections: 9 trout release sites and 4 control sites

Monitoring transects: Permanent 100 m transects at 11 streams

Habitat: Stream and vegetation setting

The Glandular Frog is tied to permanent or semi-permanent streams and their fringing vegetation, but can persist in both intact and disturbed settings when riparian cover remains.

Typical habitat includes permanent streams and rivers in well-vegetated woodland, wet sclerophyll forest and rainforest. Earlier regional descriptions also identify montane areas and small creeks and streams above 300 m, while current conservation advice places the known range above 600 m.

The species can occur along streams through disturbed grazing land if fringing riparian vegetation remains. Suitable sites may include small creeks, larger streams and rivers, shaded pools, shallow slow-flowing margins, rocks, leaf litter, roots and low vegetation beside the channel.

Typical waterbodies: Permanent streams and rivers, with breeding also recorded in semi-permanent pools

Vegetation communities: Woodland, wet sclerophyll forest and rainforest

Elevation: Above 600 m in the current conservation advice; earlier regional accounts refer to habitat above 300 m

Disturbance tolerance: May persist in highly disturbed environments where fringing riparian vegetation remains

Habitat: Structural features

Retain continuous or well-connected riparian vegetation, low calling perches, overhanging cover, logs, rocks, leaf litter, roots and shallow slow-flowing water. The documents do not define a single minimum riparian width or stream size.

The species may occur along streams with a range of flow rates and riparian conditions, so absence of one preferred stream form should not be used to exclude habitat without appropriate survey.

  • Avoid clearing riparian vegetation beside permanent or semi-permanent upland streams.
  • Protect shaded pools and shallow slow-flowing sections used by eggs and tadpoles.
  • Prevent sediment, ash, pollutants and changed flows from entering breeding pools.

Foraging habitat: Diet and feeding sites

Detailed feeding ecology is poorly known. Adults are presumed to eat invertebrates and use vegetation, ground cover and rocky stream margins around riparian habitat.

Adults are presumed to feed on invertebrates. No particular prey taxa, food plants, feeding rate or foraging distance are provided in the documents.

Adults have a semi-arboreal lifestyle but have also been observed in ground vegetation. Foraging habitat therefore includes low vegetation beside streams, ground cover, rocks, crevices and moist riparian margins.

Known diet: Invertebrates are presumed to form the adult diet

Foraging range: Not quantified

  • Retain low riparian vegetation and ground cover around occupied streams.
  • Avoid removing logs, rocks, leaf litter and root mats that provide moist foraging surfaces and invertebrate habitat.
  • Avoid lighting, noise and repeated access through riparian vegetation during nocturnal activity and breeding surveys.

Breeding habitat: Breeding sites

Breeding occurs in permanent or semi-permanent pools associated with streams. Males call from low vegetation or logs above the water, while eggs and tadpoles use shallow, slow-flowing sections with rocky, silty or organic substrates.

Small groups of males call above the water from low vegetation such as Juncus or from logs. Calling is mainly nocturnal and increases with light rain and warmer temperatures.

Breeding generally occurs in shaded pools or stream pools where flow is slower. Females attach a single adhesive egg clump to submerged rocks on the side of a pool, 1 to 7 cm below the water surface.

After hatching, tadpoles occupy the bottom of slow-flowing stream sections among rocks, leaf litter and plant roots. They use a suctioning oral disc to move over rocky substrates and feed by oral locomotion.

Breeding season: Spring and early summer

Eggs per clutch: Up to approximately 300 eggs in one adhesive clump

Egg attachment: Attached to submerged rocks 1 to 7 cm below the surface

Egg incubation: About 8 to 10 days

Tadpole duration: About 3 to 4 months

Metamorphosis: Generally between December and February

Age at maturity: Not reported

Lifespan: Not reported

  • Keep shaded pools, submerged rocks and low calling perches intact.
  • Prevent sediment and ash from filling crevices and spaces between rocks used by tadpoles.
  • Avoid in-stream works, bank disturbance and vegetation removal during spring and early summer wherever occupied breeding habitat is present.

Sheltering habitat: Adult refuges

The documents provide limited information on non-breeding shelter. Adults are associated with moist riparian cover, ground vegetation, rocks and crevices, while tadpoles shelter among submerged substrates and organic material.

Adults have been observed under rocks and in rock crevices, and may use ground vegetation. The semi-arboreal lifestyle also indicates use of low vegetation and logs around stream margins.

No refuge dimensions, home range, hibernation site or distance moved from the stream are reported. Winter dormancy is indicated by darkening of the dorsal surface, but the documents do not describe a specific overwintering shelter.

  • Retain rocks, crevices, logs, low vegetation and moist ground cover beside streams.
  • Inspect rock piles, log cover and dense riparian vegetation before clearing or access works.
  • Do not relocate cover objects during active works unless directed by the approved fauna management procedure.

Sheltering habitat: Tadpole refuges

Tadpoles occur along the bottom of shallow, slow-flowing stream sections among rocks, leaf litter and plant roots. Their brown colouration and behaviour provide camouflage among silt and leaf litter.

Sediment deposition can fill substrate crevices and reduce available tadpole refuges. Maintain clean, stable substrates and avoid direct disturbance to shallow breeding sections.

Threats: Clearing and construction

The main project risks are loss or degradation of riparian habitat, pollution and sediment, altered stream flows, fire impacts, disease spread and fragmentation. The species is an obligate stream breeder, so impacts that reduce permanent water or damage stream margins can affect breeding and recruitment.

Vegetation clearance for agriculture has been linked to past declines, and ongoing clearing remains a threat. The species calls from fringing riparian vegetation, which indicates a direct reliance on this habitat during breeding.

Roads, timber harvesting and clearing can fragment habitat and remove movement links between subpopulations. Construction access, bank trimming, vegetation removal and in-stream works can also disturb calling sites, breeding pools, shelters and tadpole substrates.

  • Survey permanent and semi-permanent upland streams, riparian vegetation and shaded pools before clearing or construction.
  • Establish no-go or protection zones around known subpopulations and breeding habitat in accordance with project approvals.
  • Keep riparian vegetation, logs, rocks, leaf litter, roots and low calling perches in place.
  • Prevent machinery access to stream beds and banks wherever practicable.

Threats: Pollution, sediment and hydrology

Water pollution and increased sediment loads from agricultural, urban and construction runoff can harm egg and tadpole development. Bushfire ash and sediment slugs can fill stream crevices, alter water chemistry and reduce tadpole refuges.

The species is restricted to permanent streams and rivers. Water extraction, diversion or other changes that reduce flow can make breeding habitat unsuitable and cause local declines or extinctions.

  • Use sediment and erosion controls that prevent turbid runoff entering streams and pools.
  • Prevent concrete washout, fuels, chemicals, nutrients and other pollutants from reaching waterways.
  • Maintain natural flow paths and avoid dewatering or diverting occupied streams.
  • Inspect controls after rainfall and repair failures promptly.

Threats: Disease and invasive species

Chytridiomycosis caused by Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is suspected to have contributed to past declines and may affect the species across its range. Disease can reduce survival and recruitment and weaken population resilience to drought and climate change.

Introduced fish may prey on eggs and tadpoles. The available Styx River studies did not demonstrate a measurable effect of trout on Glandular Frog populations, but the conservation advice identifies invasive fish as a potential major threat and calls for further research.

  • Apply amphibian hygiene and decontamination procedures between streams and between populations.
  • Do not move water, sediment, aquatic plants, fish, equipment or amphibians between catchments without appropriate controls.
  • Report sick or dead frogs through the project fauna procedure and relevant authorities.
  • Prevent the spread of invasive fish and do not release fish into streams.

Threats: Fire, drought and predators

Fire can increase stream temperature, alter water chemistry and produce ash and sediment runoff after rain. The 2019 to 2020 fires affected an estimated 67 percent of Glandular Frog habitat and were associated with an estimated immediate population decline.

More frequent or severe droughts may dry streams that were previously permanent. Feral pigs, cats, foxes and goats may cause predation or habitat disturbance, while cattle can trample stream habitat and increase sediment and nutrient inputs.

  • Protect unburnt stream refuges and monitor occupied habitat after severe fire.
  • Manage post-fire runoff, ash and sediment before rainfall transports material into breeding streams.
  • Maintain shade and riparian cover to reduce stream warming during drought.
  • Control stock access to occupied stream margins and manage feral animals where they affect habitat.

Survey methodology: 1. Nocturnal call and spotlight surveys

Survey works should focus on permanent or semi-permanent streams and their fringing riparian vegetation in upland areas. The glandular frog breeds in spring and early summer, and detection improves during or after light rain and warmer conditions.

Survey stream margins at night during the spring and early summer breeding period, when males call from low vegetation, Juncus or logs beside the water.

Use call playback, head torches and visual searches for eyeshine and adults, recording the survey route, weather, time, stream conditions and all frog responses.

Give particular attention to shaded pools, slow-flowing stream sections, low vegetation beside the water, logs, rocks and crevices where adults may shelter.

Breeding period: Spring and early summer

Typical calling position: Low vegetation, such as Juncus, or logs above or beside the stream

Male call: Usually 5 to 7 repeated ‘or-āk’ notes

  • Schedule surveys during or shortly after light rain where safe, because calling intensity increases with rain and warmer conditions.
  • Do not rely on a single negative survey, because the species can occur at low density and its distribution is disjunct.
  • Use experienced personnel to identify the male call, which usually consists of 5 to 7 repeated ‘or-āk’ notes.

Survey methodology: 2. Diurnal habitat and tadpole searches

Search stream pools, shallow slow-flowing sections, stream margins, leaf litter, plant roots, rocks and submerged crevices during daylight.

Use dip netting only where it can be done without damaging eggs, tadpoles, stream substrates or bank vegetation.

Identify tadpoles with an appropriate diagnostic key and record presence, approximate abundance, location and habitat condition.

Egg placement: Adhesive clumps attached to submerged rocks in stream pools, about 1 to 7 cm below the surface

Tadpole stage: About 3 to 4 months

Metamorphosis: Usually between December and February

  • Look for the species’ distinctive tadpole features, including a toothless suctorial oral disc and suction movement over rocky substrates.
  • Inspect shaded pools and shallow slow-flowing sections because eggs are attached to submerged rocks and tadpoles use rocks, leaf litter and plant roots.
  • Photograph or otherwise document uncertain tadpoles before release at the point of capture.

Survey methodology: 3. Transect and impact assessment surveys

For projects affecting stream habitat, establish repeatable transects along the watercourse and compare areas proposed for disturbance with retained or control areas where practicable.

The NSW study used permanent 100 m transects, with adult surveys at night and tadpole surveys during the day.

Record the distance of each frog from the water, its position along the transect and its height above the ground, then release it where it was found.

Documented transect length: 100 m

Documented survey design: Two surveys per transect, with daytime tadpole searches and nocturnal adult searches

Broader documented effort: More than 75 sites surveyed over 17 survey days and nights during spring and summer

  • Map stream width, depth, flow, pools, riffles, underwater and exposed substrate, riparian cover, ground cover and overhanging vegetation.
  • Record body mass, sex, snout to vent length, head width, body condition index and any visible injury only where handling is authorised and necessary.
  • Use repeat surveys across suitable spring and summer conditions where a project may affect known or potential habitat, rather than treating one survey as evidence of absence.

Survey methodology: Minimum effort and reporting

  • Survey all permanent and semi-permanent streams, pools, riparian vegetation and connected habitat within the proposed disturbance area and downstream area that could receive sediment or altered flows.
  • Complete both nocturnal adult and diurnal tadpole searches during the spring to early summer breeding period, with at least one survey during or shortly after suitable rain where safe.
  • Use repeatable 100 m transects where the project may affect occupied or potentially occupied stream habitat, and record the survey route, dates, start and finish times, weather, rainfall, water flow, personnel, methods, effort and detection results.
  • Do not describe the species as absent solely because it was not detected during one visit, because the available studies identify limited survey power and low-density, disjunct populations.
  • Submit verified records, including positive and negative survey information where required, to the relevant state or territory wildlife database and the Australian Government species records system.
  • Report the current scientific name used by the approving authority, noting that the cited documents refer to the species as Litoria subglandulosa.

Before habitat disturbance: Avoid and minimise

Treat permanent and semi-permanent upland streams and their riparian margins as potential glandular frog habitat, including modified grazing areas where fringing vegetation remains. Avoid direct disturbance to stream substrates, pools, banks and riparian cover.

  • Retain permanent and semi-permanent streams, shaded pools, slow-flowing sections, submerged rocks, leaf litter, plant roots, logs and fringing riparian vegetation.
  • Keep clearing, machinery access, spoil placement, refuelling and concrete washout out of stream channels and riparian habitat.
  • Maintain water quality and natural flow by preventing sediment, ash, nutrients, chemicals and altered drainage from entering breeding habitat.
  • Retain connected riparian habitat between occupied sites where practicable, because the species occurs as disjunct, low-density populations and its movement requirements are not well understood.
  • Avoid removing low vegetation used for calling, including naturally occurring Juncus and similar stream-edge vegetation.

Before habitat disturbance: Approvals and planning

Australian Government status: Vulnerable under the EPBC Act, effective from 7 September 2023

Broad habitat setting: Permanent streams and rivers, usually above 600 m, in woodland, wet sclerophyll forest or rainforest, including some disturbed areas with fringing riparian vegetation

  • Check whether the proposed action is likely to have a significant impact on this EPBC Act listed Vulnerable species and refer the action under the EPBC Act where required.
  • Obtain all applicable state or territory threatened species, wildlife handling, scientific research, vegetation clearing, waterway and national park approvals before work starts.
  • Prepare a fauna management plan that identifies potential habitat, exclusion zones, survey results, stop-work triggers, handling authority, hygiene procedures, incident contacts and reporting requirements.
  • Stage works so that the smallest practicable area is open at any one time and so that retained streams and riparian refuge areas remain connected and protected.
  • Schedule in-stream and riparian works outside spring and early summer where practicable, while recognising that timing alone does not remove the need for surveys and controls.

Before habitat disturbance: Site preparation

  • Complete the pre-clearance survey and mark all occupied sites, calling locations, tadpole locations, breeding pools, stream margins, logs, rocks, bank crevices and riparian vegetation to be retained.
  • Install exclusion fencing or other clearly visible controls around retained stream and riparian habitat where they can be maintained without blocking frog movement or causing bank damage.
  • Brief machinery operators and spotter catchers on the marked exclusion zones, access routes, clean-down requirements, stop-work triggers and the location of the nearest suitable retained habitat.
  • Use clean, disinfected equipment and follow approved amphibian hygiene procedures before entering each stream or handling frogs.
  • Protect unburnt stream and riparian refuges after fire and prevent sediment or ash runoff from reaching occupied or potential habitat.

During habitat disturbance: Daily controls and machinery interface

A fauna spotter catcher should work within the approved fauna management plan and remain in communication with the operator. The priority is to keep frogs, eggs and tadpoles in undisturbed stream habitat and prevent water quality and flow impacts.

  • Inspect exclusion fencing, stream crossings, sediment controls, dewatering arrangements and access routes before work begins each day.
  • Keep machinery outside marked stream, pool and riparian exclusion areas unless the approved method specifically permits entry.
  • Require the spotter catcher to stand where the active work area, bucket or blade and likely escape routes can be seen safely, and maintain direct communication with the operator.
  • Stop machinery immediately when the spotter catcher calls a fauna stop, when an amphibian is seen in the work zone, or when sediment, contaminated water or uncontrolled runoff reaches the stream.
  • Do not move frogs, eggs or tadpoles during unsafe flow, electrical storms, chemical exposure or machinery movement until the area is made safe.

During habitat disturbance: Handling and relocation

  • Allow only trained and authorised personnel to capture, handle or relocate the species under the relevant approval and fauna management plan.
  • Use clean, powder-free gloves or another approved amphibian-safe method, change gloves between animals or sites as required, and minimise handling time.
  • Release an unharmed frog into nearby retained habitat with similar stream, cover and moisture conditions, unless the approval or wildlife authority specifies another location.
  • Do not move eggs or tadpoles unless an authorised aquatic fauna procedure specifically requires it, because they depend on particular stream substrates and flow conditions.
  • Place an injured frog in a clean, moist, secure container away from direct heat and machinery, and contact the nominated wildlife carer, veterinarian or wildlife authority immediately.
  • Do not keep frogs overnight, transport them across catchments or release them into unapproved habitat.

During habitat disturbance: Habitat feature handling and stop work

  • Treat submerged rocks, shallow pools, slow-flowing stream sections, leaf litter, plant roots, logs and bank crevices as potential breeding or shelter features.
  • Do not disturb rocks with attached egg clumps, streambed substrates containing tadpoles or logs supporting calling or sheltering frogs unless the approved method provides for their protection.
  • Stop work and obtain ecological advice if a glandular frog, egg clump or tadpole is found, if an occupied breeding pool is exposed, or if the work changes stream flow, water quality or bank stability.
  • Stop work if the species is found outside the surveyed area, if the exclusion boundary is damaged, or if the approved avoidance measures cannot be maintained.
  • Record the location, date, time, life stage, number, condition, action taken, handler, release location and photographs for every encounter.

After habitat disturbance: Close-out checks

Controls remain in place until the site is stable and the risk of sediment, altered flow and accidental entry has ended. Follow-up should test whether retained and rehabilitated stream habitat remains suitable.

  • Complete a post-clearance inspection of the work area, stream margins, pools, sediment controls and retained riparian habitat before demobilisation.
  • Check for stranded or injured frogs, damaged habitat features, blocked flow, sediment deposition, contaminated water and failed exclusion fencing.
  • Remove temporary barriers only when machinery and other project risks have ended and the fauna management plan allows removal.
  • Confirm that no spoil, mulch, concrete, chemicals or waste remains where runoff can reach the stream.

After habitat disturbance: Monitoring and reporting

  • Repeat nocturnal call and spotlight surveys and diurnal tadpole searches at retained and rehabilitated habitat during spring and early summer where the approval or risk assessment requires post-work monitoring.
  • Use the same transects, survey conditions and recording methods used before disturbance so changes in detections, breeding activity and habitat condition can be assessed.
  • Monitor water flow, pool persistence, sediment, riparian cover, bank stability and the condition of submerged rocks, leaf litter and plant roots.
  • Report all records, mortalities, injuries, relocations, stop-work events, breaches and corrective actions to the project environmental officer and the relevant regulator.
  • Submit verified post-work records to the relevant state or territory wildlife database and update the project species register.

After habitat disturbance: Ongoing controls and offsets

  • Maintain erosion, sediment, water quality, weed and access controls until monitoring shows that the site is stable.
  • Apply any approved offset or compensatory habitat measure in addition to avoidance and mitigation, not as a substitute for protecting occupied stream habitat.
  • Use the EPBC approval, state approval or conservation advice to set the duration, frequency and success criteria for monitoring.

Rehabilitation actions: Stream and riparian restoration

Rehabilitation should restore permanent or semi-permanent stream function and connected riparian cover, rather than only planting the disturbed footprint. The target condition is suitable breeding, tadpole and adult shelter habitat with clean water and stable flows.

Breeding habitat to restore: Permanent or semi-permanent pools, generally shaded and slow flowing

Tadpole habitat to retain: Shallow slow-flowing sections with rocks, leaf litter and plant roots

  • Re-establish local native riparian vegetation along stream margins, including low native vegetation used as calling cover where it naturally occurs.
  • Restore shaded pools and slow-flowing sections where they were damaged, while avoiding abrupt changes to natural channel form or flow.
  • Stabilise banks with locally appropriate native vegetation and erosion controls that do not smother stream substrates or reduce access to the water.
  • Prevent sediment and nutrient runoff from entering the stream during establishment and after heavy rain.
  • Retain or reinstate clean logs, rocks, leaf litter and plant roots in appropriate stream and bank positions as shelter and tadpole habitat, without creating blockages or diverting flow.

Rehabilitation actions: Fire, weeds and predators

  • Develop fire management with relevant land managers and Traditional Custodians so that riparian refuges, unburnt stream margins and suitable wet habitat are retained.
  • Prevent high-severity fire impacts where practicable and protect unburnt refuges after fire.
  • Control invasive weeds and avoid herbicide drift or spray entry into streams, pools and riparian vegetation.
  • Manage feral pigs, cats, foxes, goats and other introduced animals where they damage stream habitat or pose a predation risk, in accordance with legal and approved control programs.
  • Use clean equipment and approved hygiene protocols during planting, weed control, monitoring and maintenance to reduce the spread of chytrid fungus.

Rehabilitation actions: Success measures and monitoring

  • Set site-specific success measures for survival of planted riparian vegetation, stable banks, functioning pools, natural or approved flow conditions, low sediment input and persistence of stream cover.
  • Monitor rehabilitated habitat during spring and early summer using nocturnal call and spotlight searches and diurnal tadpole searches.
  • Record calling males, adults, egg clumps, tadpoles and metamorphs separately, together with survey effort and weather conditions.
  • Compare post-rehabilitation results with pre-disturbance records and reference or control transects where available.
  • Continue management if monitoring shows loss of flow, drying pools, declining riparian cover, sediment accumulation, chytrid hygiene failures or persistent absence from previously occupied habitat.

Sources