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Freckled Duck (Stictonetta naevosa)

The Freckled Duck is a wetland-dependent Australian waterfowl that breeds in flooded inland marshes and uses permanent freshwater wetlands during dry periods. Clearing, wetland drainage, altered flooding and disturbance at densely vegetated nesting sites can affect birds using or moving through development areas.

Conservation status

New South Wales, Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016: Vulnerable.

Victoria, Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988: Endangered.

South Australia, National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972: Vulnerable.

Northern Territory, Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1976: Near threatened.

Breeding season

The annual pattern varies with rainfall and flooding. The table shows a practical south-eastern and inland pattern, with breeding able to start earlier or occur outside these months when flooding conditions are favourable.

Month order is January to December. Local rainfall, flooding and water levels should be used to adjust this pattern for each project.

  • Breeding: Egg laying is reported from June to December, usually September to December. Breeding timing is strongly influenced by rainfall and flooding.
  • Young: In south-eastern Australia, young may hatch in January and February. Ducklings fledge at about 7 to 9 weeks and remain associated with siblings after fledging.
  • Movement and drought refuge use: The species is dispersive and nomadic. During prolonged inland drought it may move to permanent wetlands, including coastal New South Wales, Victoria and the Hunter Estuary. No fixed peak months are provided.
  • Highest clearing risk: Risk is highest during the documented June to December laying period and into January and February when young may be present. Dense wetland vegetation should be checked after flooding and before clearing.

Identification

The Freckled Duck is a dark, heavily speckled duck with a large peaked head and a narrow, slightly upturned bill. It is most readily detected on open water, in dense wetland vegetation, or by its distinctive calls and concealed nests.

Adults are dark greyish brown and evenly freckled with white or buff. The head is large and peaked towards the rear, and the bill is narrow and slightly upturned. Adult size is 48 to 59 cm.

The male's bill base becomes crimson during the breeding season. This is the clearest visible difference between the sexes reported in the supplied sources.

Adult length: 48 to 59 cm

Adult weight: Not provided in the supplied documents

Duckling weight: About 40 to 50 g at hatching

Identification: Separating it from similar ducks

The Freckled Duck can be confused with the Pacific Black Duck, but its dark plumage is evenly freckled, its head is more strongly peaked at the rear, and its bill is narrower and slightly upturned. The breeding male's crimson bill base is also distinctive.

  • Check the whole plumage for fine pale freckling rather than the contrasting facial and body pattern of many other ducks.
  • Use the bill shape and large peaked head together with plumage, rather than bill colour alone, when identifying non-breeding birds.

Identification: Field signs and calls

Freckled Ducks give a soft musical piping contact call, a flute-like wheeooo alarm call, and loud discordant quacks around the nest. Nests are bowl-shaped and made from sticks, twigs, plant debris and feather down.

Nests are usually concealed among reeds, lignum or other dense wetland vegetation near water. They may be built on water, on a stream bank, in a billabong, or on an abandoned coot nest. No reliable tracks, scats, sloughs or eyeshine information is provided in the supplied documents.

Nest diameter: About 380 to 480 mm, based on three nests

Nest depth: About 120 to 170 mm, based on three nests

  • Inspect dense vegetation near water carefully before clearing, particularly where a bowl-shaped nest or loose plant construction is present.
  • Record calls and the bird's bill and head profile when visibility is poor.

Distribution: National range

The Freckled Duck occurs mainly in south-eastern and south-western Australia and in inland Australian basins. It is dispersive and may move to coastal wetlands during prolonged inland drought.

The documented range includes south-eastern and south-western Australia, with inland breeding areas in the Bulloo Basin, Lake Eyre Basin and Murray Darling system. The species is less common in south-western Australia and may occur elsewhere as a vagrant.

The supplied state listing identifies records or conservation concern in New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and the Northern Territory. The documents also describe inland Australia, coastal New South Wales and coastal Victoria as part of the species' range or drought refuge range.

Documented inland regions: Bulloo Basin, Lake Eyre Basin and Murray Darling system

Documented coastal drought refuges: Coastal New South Wales, Victoria and the Hunter Estuary

State conservation listings supplied: New South Wales, Vulnerable; Victoria, Endangered; South Australia, Vulnerable; Northern Territory, Near Threatened

Commonwealth listing supplied: Not listed under the EPBC Act

Distribution: Strongholds and subpopulations

Large temporary swamps formed by floods in the Bulloo Basin, Lake Eyre Basin and Murray Darling system are documented breeding areas. Permanent freshwater wetlands, including lakes, reservoirs, farm dams and sewage ponds, are used when inland conditions are dry.

The Gwydir Wetlands in the northern Murray Darling system support recorded Freckled Ducks and are an example of a wetland used by the species. The Hunter Estuary is documented as a coastal refuge during drought, although the supplied material does not provide a wild population estimate for that site.

Australian population size: Not provided in the supplied documents

Population trend: Not provided in the supplied documents

Local population density: Not provided in the supplied documents

Distribution: Project interpretation

A record outside the main inland breeding areas may represent a drought-driven movement or use of a permanent refuge rather than a resident breeding population. Absence from a single survey should not be treated as evidence of absence because the species is dispersive and may move thousands of kilometres in search of suitable conditions.

  • Check nearby permanent wetlands and dense emergent vegetation when a bird is recorded on or near a project site.
  • Review recent rainfall, flooding and wetland water levels when interpreting records and planning survey timing.

Habitat: Wetland types

Freckled Ducks depend on freshwater wetlands with open water and dense emergent or fringing vegetation. Habitat use changes with rainfall, flooding and the availability of permanent water.

Preferred habitat includes permanent freshwater swamps and creeks with heavy growth of cumbungi, lignum or tea-tree. During dry periods, birds move from ephemeral breeding swamps to more permanent lakes, reservoirs, farm dams and sewage ponds.

Breeding habitat is associated with large temporary swamps created by floods, newly flooded creeks and inland marshes. Coastal wetlands can provide refuge during inland drought.

Habitat: Vegetation and structure

Important structural features include dense stands of cumbungi or cattails, lignum, tea-tree, reeds and other tall wetland vegetation. Vegetation provides concealment for resting birds and nests, while adjacent open water provides access for swimming and feeding.

Nests may be at water level or become elevated as water recedes. The supplied documents do not provide a characteristic water depth, wetland area, elevation range or minimum vegetation density.

Elevation range: Not provided in the supplied documents

Climate pattern: Use is strongly linked to rainfall, flooding, drought and changing water availability

  • Retain dense wetland vegetation around open water, creek margins, billabongs and flooded depressions.
  • Treat recently flooded wetlands and wetlands with receding water as potential breeding habitat, not only as foraging habitat.

Foraging habitat: Food and feeding times

Freckled Ducks feed in and around freshwater wetlands, mainly during low-light periods. They use both temporary flooded areas and permanent waters, depending on water availability.

The diet includes algae, seeds, vegetative parts of aquatic grasses and sedges, and small invertebrates. Birds feed mainly at dawn, dusk and at night.

The supplied documents do not specify a fixed foraging distance or home range. Movement between temporary breeding wetlands and permanent waters can be extensive during drought.

Recorded food: Algae, seeds, aquatic grasses and sedges, and small invertebrates

Main feeding periods: Dawn, dusk and night

Foraging range: Not quantified; drought-related movements may cover thousands of kilometres

  • Survey open water, shallow wetland margins and dense stands of aquatic grasses and sedges during dawn, dusk or night where safe and practicable.
  • Record feeding birds and the wetland vegetation or waterbody type being used.

Foraging habitat: Foraging habitat features

Foraging habitat includes permanent freshwater swamps and creeks, flooded inland marshes, and permanent lakes, reservoirs, farm dams and sewage ponds. Suitable sites combine water with aquatic vegetation and may also provide dense cover for resting.

  • Inspect both the waterbody and its vegetated margins when assessing habitat affected by access tracks, drainage works or construction.
  • Avoid assuming that a highly modified permanent waterbody has low value, because such sites may be used during dry periods.

Breeding habitat: Breeding biology

Breeding is tied to flooding and suitable food conditions. Freckled Ducks nest singly in dense vegetation close to water, with the male usually building the nest and the female incubating and raising the young.

Breeding can occur from June to December, with the timing strongly influenced by rainfall and flooding. In south-eastern Australia, young may hatch in January and February. Breeding can occur in March and April in years with early flooding.

The male builds a bowl-shaped nest from sticks, twigs and plant debris. The female adds down while laying. The female incubates the eggs and raises the young, while the male may defend the area around the nest and may remain during early incubation.

Breeding season: Usually September to December, but egg laying may occur from June to December and after suitable rainfall

Clutch size: Usually 5 to 14 eggs, averaging about 7

Incubation: 26 to 31 days, commonly reported as about 28 days

Age at maturity: By about 2 years in managed care; wild age at maturity is not reported

Lifespan: Wild lifespan is not known; no managed-care median is provided

Fledging: About 7 to 9 weeks after hatching

Breeding habitat: Breeding habitat features

Breeding habitat consists mainly of freshwater marshes with heavy vegetation, including lignum marshes, cumbungi or cattail marshes, tea-tree marshes and newly flooded creeks. Nests are generally close to water and are often concealed by surrounding vegetation.

Nests are normally solitary and are spaced more than 100 m apart. Freckled Ducks may also use abandoned nests of other birds, especially coots.

Typical nest spacing: More than 100 m

Nest position: At or near water level, among reeds, lignum, on water, or sometimes on a stream bank or in a billabong

  • Search dense wetland vegetation within and beside water before clearing or machinery access.
  • Apply a precautionary breeding assessment to suitable wetlands after flooding and during the June to December laying period.
  • Treat nests more than 100 m apart as possible separate breeding attempts rather than assuming a colony.

Sheltering habitat: Day shelter and refuge

Dense wetland vegetation is the main documented shelter for Freckled Ducks. Birds also use permanent waterbodies as drought refuges and generally rest in dense cover.

Freckled Ducks generally rest in dense cover associated with permanent freshwater swamps, creeks, lakes, reservoirs, farm dams and sewage ponds. Coastal wetlands, including the Hunter Estuary, can provide refuge during inland drought.

The supplied documents do not describe species-specific roost trees, hollows, burrows, caves, refuge dimensions or a required minimum cover width.

  • Retain dense reed, cumbungi, lignum and tea-tree cover around waterbodies during clearing and construction.
  • Inspect vegetated margins and islands, not only open water, for resting birds and concealed nests.
  • Include permanent wetlands in impact assessments even when nearby temporary breeding swamps are dry.

Sheltering habitat: Nest concealment

Nests are bowl-shaped structures made from plant material and down. They are usually screened by vegetation and may be built among reed beds, lignum or other dense wetland plants.

Nest diameter: About 380 to 480 mm

Nest depth: About 120 to 170 mm

  • Use a spotter catcher or suitably experienced ecologist to check dense vegetation before slashing, mulching, piling or vehicle access.
  • If a nest is found, establish a site-specific no-entry area and obtain advice on applicable state requirements before work continues.

Threats: Wetland loss and hydrology

The main documented threats are loss and degradation of wetlands, altered hydrology, grazing impacts and illegal shooting. Project impacts are most likely where works remove dense wetland vegetation, change flooding or disturb birds during breeding and dependent young.

Draining and clearing of wetlands and swamp habitat reduce breeding, feeding and sheltering habitat. Dams, weirs and irrigation can alter natural river flow and flooding, which affects the rainfall and flood conditions that trigger breeding and provide food.

Changes to water levels can also affect nest placement because nests are built near water level and may become elevated as water recedes.

  • Avoid draining, filling or isolating temporary and permanent freshwater wetlands.
  • Maintain natural inflows, flooding patterns and wetland water levels where practicable.
  • Assess indirect hydrology effects from pumps, culverts, levees, diversion structures and altered drainage, not only the footprint of clearing.

Threats: Clearing, disturbance and grazing

Clearing dense cumbungi, reeds, lignum or tea-tree can remove nest concealment and resting cover. Grazing and trampling by stock are documented threats to wetland habitat.

Noise, machinery, lighting and repeated access near a nest may cause adults to leave or may expose eggs and young. The supplied documents do not quantify disturbance distances for construction activities.

  • Schedule vegetation clearing outside the period when breeding or dependent young are most likely, where project timing allows.
  • Use pre-clearance checks after flooding and before work in dense wetland vegetation.
  • Prevent stock access and vehicle trampling in retained wetland habitat.

Threats: Movement and other threats

Freckled Ducks are dispersive and may move long distances during drought. Fragmentation or obstruction of wetland connections can reduce access to permanent refuges and feeding sites.

Illegal shooting is a documented threat. The supplied documents do not provide species-specific evidence on road mortality, fire, introduced predators or disease, so these risks should be assessed locally rather than assumed.

  • Check whether roads, rail, pipelines, powerlines, dams or construction compounds interrupt movement between wetlands.
  • Control access and prohibit shooting in or near project wetlands in accordance with applicable law.
  • Record road casualties, predator observations and disease signs during fauna monitoring, but do not treat their absence from the supplied documents as evidence that they are unimportant locally.

Survey methodology: 1. Habitat assessment and records search

Survey effort should focus on wetlands and connected refuge waters used by Freckled Ducks for breeding, feeding and dispersal. The supplied documents do not provide a species-specific survey guideline or a prescribed number of visits, transect length or trap effort, so the survey design must be set by a suitably qualified ecologist for the site and project risk.

Map permanent and temporary freshwater swamps, flooded creeks, billabongs, lakes, reservoirs, farm dams and sewerage ponds within and near the project area.

Record dense cumbungi or Typha, lignum, tea-tree, reed beds and other heavy wetland vegetation that can provide nesting cover.

Review recent and historical records, including records from drought refuges and nearby coastal wetlands, because Freckled Ducks disperse when inland wetlands dry.

Check whether the site connects to other wetlands or retained water bodies that could be used during dispersal.

Survey methodology: 2. Targeted waterbird observations

Survey from concealed vantage points around suitable wetlands, avoiding entry into dense nesting vegetation unless authorised and necessary.

Undertake observations at dawn and dusk, when Freckled Ducks feed, and include night observations where safe access and project risk warrant them.

Repeat observations under different water levels or after suitable rainfall where the project may affect temporary breeding wetlands, because breeding timing is strongly influenced by flooding and food availability.

Record all Freckled Ducks, flock size, sex where identifiable, behaviour, flight direction, feeding areas, roosting areas and any courtship, nesting or brood activity.

Use binoculars or a spotting scope and maintain enough distance to avoid flushing birds from dense cover.

Species size: 48 to 59 cm

Typical feeding periods: Dawn, dusk and night

Breeding period: Usually September to December, but rainfall and flooding can extend or shift breeding

Survey methodology: 3. Nest and breeding-habitat search

Search the margins of suitable wetlands for bowl-shaped nests made from sticks, twigs, plant debris and down.

Give particular attention to reed beds, lignum, cumbungi and other dense vegetation near or over water, including stream banks and billabongs.

Do not systematically walk through dense breeding cover where this could flush incubating females or separate adults from young; use quiet observation from the wetland edge first.

If a nest or dependent young is found, establish a site-specific no-entry and no-disturbance area through the fauna management plan and obtain advice from the relevant wildlife authority before work proceeds.

Nest spacing: Nests are reported to be more than 100 m apart

Incubation: 26 to 31 days, with the female incubating

Young: Young remain in the nest for about 24 hours after hatching and fledge at about 7 to 9 weeks

Survey methodology: 4. Minimum effort and reporting

  • Use a qualified ecologist to document the wetland types surveyed, survey dates, start and finish times, weather, water levels, observer numbers, equipment, access limitations and the area covered.
  • Set the number and spacing of visits from the size of the disturbance footprint, wetland condition, seasonal water availability, known records and the likelihood of breeding activity; do not rely on a single negative visit where suitable habitat is present.
  • Record positive and negative results separately for each wetland or habitat unit, with coordinates, photographs and a description of detection conditions.
  • Submit verified records and any breeding observations to the relevant state wildlife database and comply with the data requirements of the approving agency.
  • Report any nest, brood, injured bird or unexpected concentration of Freckled Ducks to the project ecologist and the relevant wildlife authority before disturbance continues.

Before habitat disturbance: Avoid and minimise

Treat suitable wetland habitat as a project constraint from the design stage. Freckled Ducks use dense freshwater vegetation for nesting and move to permanent waters, including artificial water bodies, during dry periods.

  • Avoid clearing or filling permanent and temporary freshwater wetlands, flooded creeks, billabongs and dense wetland vegetation wherever practicable.
  • Retain cumbungi or Typha, lignum, tea-tree and reed beds, together with the adjacent open water used for feeding and movement.
  • Keep retained wetlands connected to nearby refuge waters and avoid severing flight paths or access between breeding wetlands and permanent water.
  • Do not assume that a wetland is unused because Freckled Ducks are absent during a dry visit; the species is dispersive and may return after flooding or rainfall.

Before habitat disturbance: Approvals and project planning

  • Confirm the current Commonwealth and state conservation status before work starts, because the supplied material identifies the species as vulnerable in New South Wales and state controls may differ elsewhere.
  • Check whether the proposal requires a state wildlife permit, threatened species approval, wetland approval, waterway approval or other environmental authorisation.
  • Consider an EPBC Act referral if the species is listed nationally at the time of assessment or if the action may affect a nationally protected matter; confirm this against the current Commonwealth register.
  • Prepare a fauna management plan that identifies wetland exclusion areas, survey triggers, authorised fauna handlers, stop-work controls, handling and release procedures, incident contacts and reporting requirements.

Before habitat disturbance: Timing and site preparation

  • Schedule wetland disturbance outside periods when nests, incubating females or dependent young are present wherever the approval and construction program allow.
  • Stage works so that retained wetlands and movement routes remain available while other areas are cleared.
  • Complete a pre-clearance inspection close to the start of works, with repeat checks after rainfall, flooding or a substantial change in water level.
  • Mark wetland boundaries, dense nesting vegetation, retained refuge water, access routes and no-go areas on plans and in the field.
  • Use exclusion fencing where it can prevent machinery, vehicles and people entering retained wetland habitat without creating a barrier to bird movement or access to water.

During habitat disturbance: Daily controls and supervision

Freckled Ducks are wetland birds, so the main controls are to keep machinery and people out of retained wetland habitat, prevent sudden disturbance and respond quickly to any bird, nest or brood found during works.

  • Have the fauna spotter catcher or another authorised ecological supervisor inspect work areas, wetland edges and access routes before daily disturbance begins.
  • Maintain marked exclusion areas and check fencing, sediment controls, lighting and access points each day.
  • Prevent runoff, fuel, concrete washout, rubbish and other pollutants from entering retained wetlands or connected waterways.
  • Keep noise, vehicle movement, lighting and worker access away from dense wetland cover, especially during breeding observations or where a nest is present.
  • Require machinery operators to stop immediately when directed by the fauna spotter catcher.

During habitat disturbance: Spotter catcher and machinery protocol

  • The fauna spotter catcher must remain in a position where the active work face, wetland edge and likely escape route can be observed safely.
  • Use a slow, staged approach to any vegetation removal near wetland habitat, allowing the spotter catcher to inspect each section before machinery advances.
  • Do not use machinery to chase, herd, catch or move a Freckled Duck.
  • Do not enter water or dense nesting vegetation to catch a bird unless the person is authorised, trained, equipped and the wildlife authority or fauna management plan permits the action.

During habitat disturbance: If a Freckled Duck is found

  • Stop work in the immediate area and allow the bird a clear route to retained water or cover.
  • Do not handle a healthy bird unless handling is authorised and necessary to prevent immediate harm.
  • Treat a nest, incubating female, brood or adult repeatedly returning to one location as a stop-work matter until the project ecologist has assessed it.
  • If capture is necessary, use only an authorised and trained wildlife handler, minimise handling time and place the bird in a suitable quiet container with appropriate ventilation and temperature control.
  • Release a healthy bird only into nearby retained habitat that provides suitable freshwater, dense cover and a safe route away from machinery, and only under the approved fauna management procedure.
  • Take an injured or distressed bird to an appropriately experienced veterinarian or licensed wildlife carer, after contacting the relevant wildlife authority as required.
  • Record the location, date, time, condition, action taken, release or treatment location, people involved and any authority notification.

During habitat disturbance: Stop-work triggers and habitat features

  • Stop work if a Freckled Duck, nest, brood or repeated breeding behaviour is found within the disturbance area or if the bird cannot move safely to retained habitat.
  • Stop work if exclusion fencing fails, machinery enters a wetland exclusion area, pollution reaches water or water levels change in a way that strands birds or exposes a nest.
  • Treat dense reed beds, cumbungi, lignum, tea-tree and other wetland vegetation as habitat features requiring ecological inspection before removal.
  • Do not apply generic hollow-bearing tree, log, rock or burrow handling procedures to this duck unless those features are part of the wetland protection design; the supplied documents identify dense wetland vegetation and water bodies, rather than terrestrial shelter features, as the relevant habitat.

After habitat disturbance: Post-clearance checks

Post-clearance work must confirm that no bird, nest or brood has been left in the disturbance area and that retained wetlands continue to provide water, cover and movement opportunities.

  • Inspect the cleared area, wetland edge, access tracks, sediment controls and retained water immediately after each clearance stage.
  • Search for injured, trapped or isolated birds and follow the authorised handling and wildlife-care procedure if one is found.
  • Remove temporary fencing only after the project ecologist confirms that construction hazards have been removed and birds can move safely through the area.
  • Repair any damaged wetland edge, exclusion fence, water connection or pollution control before the next work stage.

After habitat disturbance: Monitoring and compliance

  • Monitor retained wetlands during the construction period and after works at a frequency set by the approval, fauna management plan and wetland risk.
  • Repeat dawn and dusk observations where the project affects feeding, roosting or movement habitat, and include observations after rainfall or flooding where suitable habitat becomes available.
  • Compare post-work records with pre-work records, including bird numbers, behaviour, water extent, dense vegetation cover and use of refuge areas.
  • Maintain records of inspections, incidents, stop-work events, captures, veterinary outcomes, releases, complaints, fencing failures and corrective actions.

After habitat disturbance: Reporting and residual impacts

  • Report unexpected mortality, injury, nest disturbance, wetland damage and non-compliance to the project manager, ecologist and relevant approval authority within the required timeframe.
  • Submit verified post-construction records to the relevant state wildlife database and retain the source photographs and coordinates.
  • Complete any approved offset, compensatory habitat or restoration action where impacts cannot be avoided or minimised and the approval requires it.
  • Keep wetland exclusion, pollution and access controls in place for as long as they are needed to protect retained habitat and returning birds.

Rehabilitation actions: Restore wetland structure

Rehabilitation should recreate the freshwater wetland conditions used by Freckled Ducks for feeding, nesting and refuge. The design should respond to local hydrology and should not replace natural wetland habitat with an isolated ornamental water body.

  • Restore natural or approved water regimes so the site can support both temporary flooded breeding habitat and reliable refuge water during dry periods.
  • Re-establish dense cumbungi or Typha, lignum and locally appropriate tea-tree, reed and other freshwater wetland vegetation around water margins.
  • Provide a mixture of open water for feeding and dense cover for nesting, roosting and concealment.
  • Retain or reinstate connections between the rehabilitated wetland, nearby billabongs, creeks, lakes and other permanent waters.
  • Do not introduce terrestrial habitat features such as logs, rocks, hollows or nest boxes as a substitute for the dense wetland vegetation and water habitat identified for this species.

Rehabilitation actions: Manage threats

  • Control weeds that reduce the structure or extent of native wetland vegetation.
  • Prevent stock trampling and grazing in recovering wetland margins until vegetation is established and the approval allows access.
  • Manage sediment, nutrient, chemical and stormwater inputs so water quality does not reduce aquatic food or dense vegetation cover.
  • Manage artificial lighting and human access around retained and rehabilitated wetlands, particularly during dawn, dusk and night feeding periods.
  • Apply fire planning that protects dense wetland vegetation and avoids burning nesting cover during the local breeding period; obtain site-specific fire advice because the supplied documents do not prescribe a Freckled Duck fire regime.

Rehabilitation actions: Monitoring and success measures

  • Monitor water extent, hydroperiod, water quality, wetland vegetation establishment, weed cover, stock damage and connectivity at intervals set by the approval and rehabilitation plan.
  • Undertake dawn and dusk waterbird observations and record Freckled Duck presence, flock size, feeding, roosting, courtship, nesting and use of rehabilitated habitat.
  • Treat successful establishment of dense native wetland cover, functioning water connections, absence of avoidable disturbance and regular use by Freckled Ducks as key performance measures.
  • Investigate a failure to establish wetland vegetation, loss of water connectivity or repeated absence of birds where suitable conditions exist, and implement corrective actions.
  • Submit rehabilitation results and verified species records to the relevant state wildlife database and approval authority.

Sources