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Eastern Long-eared Bat (Nyctophilus bifax)

The Eastern Long-eared Bat is a small, slow-flying insectivorous bat of eastern Queensland and north-east New South Wales. It uses moist lowland forests, coastal rainforest, swamp forest and adjacent wet eucalypt forest, with hollows, foliage, bark and epiphytes providing roosts. Clearing, removal of hollow-bearing trees, fragmentation and disturbance of communal roosts are relevant risks on development sites.

Conservation status

New South Wales, Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016: Vulnerable.

Breeding season

The timing below combines the reported breeding cycle with seasonal roost changes and torpor records from subtropical New South Wales. Timing may vary across the broad Queensland to New South Wales range.

Month values are January to December: 0 means not typical, 1 means occurs, and 2 means peak or highest risk. The supplied sources do not provide a complete range-wide calendar for every month.

  • Breeding and mating: Breeding or mating activity is reported in May.
  • Young and lactation: Females give birth to twins in October. Lactation continues from October to December. Young remain attached briefly, then stay in the roost while the female feeds.
  • Seasonal roost movement: In New South Wales, bats use warmer forest edges in late autumn, around May, and move towards cooler forest interiors in late spring, around November.
  • Torpor and winter activity: Winter torpor can last for prolonged periods, although bats leave roosts regularly to forage. In a subtropical study, mean winter torpor duration was 26.8 hours and maximum duration was 83.7 hours.
  • Highest clearing risk: Risk is highest around May during breeding or mating activity and from October to December when females give birth, lactate and leave dependent young in roosts. Disturbance to winter torpor roosts should also be avoided.

Identification

The Eastern Long-eared Bat is a small brown long-eared bat with a distinctive simple noseleaf and a slow, manoeuvrable flight style. Identification from echolocation alone is unreliable where other Nyctophilus species occur.

Adults have very large, broad ears with bluntly rounded tips. The inner ear surfaces have horizontal ribbing, and the anterior edges curve inwards. A broad, furred interauricular band crosses the forehead.

The dorsal fur is rich brownish tan and the underside is lighter. The face, ears and wing membranes are dark greyish brown. The muzzle is short and blunt, with a simple noseleaf formed by two ridges and a vertical groove.

Head and body: 35 to 55 mm.

Tail: 39 to 46 mm.

Forearm: 37.5 to 46.8 mm.

Weight: 5 to 12 g.

Identification: Distinguishing features

The species can resemble other long-eared bats, particularly Gould's Long-eared Bat and other Nyctophilus species. Field identification should use a recognised identification key and measurements rather than ear size or colour alone.

Echolocation calls are steep frequency-modulated sweeps. Recorded maximum frequencies range from 70 to 109 kHz, with a mean of 89.1 kHz, and minimum frequencies from 47 to 55 kHz. Calls are not sufficiently distinctive for reliable species identification in areas with other Nyctophilus species.

  • Use photographs, measurements and a suitable identification key for captured animals.
  • Do not rely on an acoustic record alone to confirm this species where sympatric long-eared bats may occur.

Identification: Sexes and field signs

Females may roost in small groups of 2 to 7. Males usually roost alone. During lactation, females favour tree hollows more than foliage roosts.

Day roosts may be found in tree hollows, under peeling bark, among epiphytes, in shallow trunk or branch depressions, in strangler fig roots, amongst dead tree-fern fronds and in dense foliage. The species occasionally uses buildings.

There are no species-specific tracks, scats, nests or other ground signs described in the supplied sources. A communal group in a bat box or hollow can be a useful field clue, but animals should be confirmed by a qualified person.

  • Inspect likely roost trees before clearing, including large trees with accessible hollows, hollow-bearing trees and dead trees with suitable cavities.
  • Treat a group of small, long-eared bats in a foliage roost or hollow as potentially significant until identification is confirmed.

Distribution

The Eastern Long-eared Bat occurs in eastern Australia, from Cape York through eastern Queensland to north-east New South Wales. In New South Wales, records are concentrated on the coastal plain and nearby coastal ranges.

The national range extends from eastern Queensland, including Cape York, through the Queensland coast and adjacent coastal forests to the far north-east corner of New South Wales. The species has also been reported from Hinchinbrook, Palm, Fraser and Moa and Prince of Wales islands.

In New South Wales, the known range extends south to the Clarence River area, with a small number of records around Coffs Harbour. The supplied sources do not identify records from other Australian states.

Queensland: Eastern Queensland, including Cape York and several offshore islands.

New South Wales: North-east coastal plain and nearby coastal ranges, south to the Clarence River area, with some records around Coffs Harbour.

Bioregional setting: North-east Queensland coastal forests and the New South Wales North Coast, including the Upper and Lower North East assessment regions.

Distribution: Strongholds and subpopulations

The species can be locally common within its restricted range, but the supplied sources do not provide a national population estimate or a quantified population trend.

The Richmond River valley is identified as cleared and dry in habitat modelling. The Iluka area and littoral rainforest of the north coast are important reference areas for roosting ecology. A record of 25 probable animals in one bat box near Raleigh, close to the southern extent of the known range, shows that artificial roosts can be used by groups.

Documented group record: Twenty-five probable Eastern Long-eared Bats were recorded in one timber roost box near Raleigh in August 2017.

Population size: Not stated in the supplied sources.

Population trend: Not stated in the supplied sources.

Habitat

This bat is associated mainly with moist, structurally complex vegetation at low elevations. It uses a mix of rainforest, swamp forest, riparian forest and wet eucalypt forest rather than a single vegetation community.

Habitat includes lowland subtropical rainforest, littoral rainforest, monsoon forest, paperbark riverine forest, coastal swamp forest, moist eucalypt forest, tall open forest and some dry sclerophyll woodland. Coastal rainforest, coastal scrub and moist forest adjoining these communities are particularly relevant.

The species has been recorded from sea level to about 500 m elevation in Queensland. The supplied sources do not provide a separate upper elevation limit for New South Wales.

Elevation: From sea level to approximately 500 m in Queensland.

Key vegetation: Lowland subtropical and littoral rainforest, paperbark and coastal swamp forest, moist eucalypt forest and adjacent coastal scrub.

Structural condition: Structurally complex forest with mature trees, hollows, dense foliage, epiphytes, peeling bark and shaded understorey.

  • Prioritise moist forest remnants, rainforest margins, swamp forest, riparian vegetation and dense coastal scrub during habitat assessment.
  • Retain connections between forest patches, creek lines and coastal vegetation because the species changes roosting localities and forages along forest edges.

Habitat: Site features

Important site features include mature hollow-bearing trees, dead or partly dead trees with suitable cavities, dense foliage, epiphytes, palms, tree ferns, strangler fig roots and sheltered trunks and branches.

Roosts are often close together. In New South Wales, roosting localities may be switched between seasons, with movements between cooler forest interiors and warmer forest edges.

  • Map hollow-bearing trees and dense foliage roost features within the clearing footprint and adjacent retained forest.
  • Maintain moist forest structure and understorey links around retained roost trees, not just the tree trunk itself.

Foraging habitat

The Eastern Long-eared Bat is a perch hunter and gleaner. It forages slowly through cluttered vegetation and along canopy edges, taking both flying and non-flying prey.

Individuals hang from perches about 5 to 10 m above the ground and use echolocation or active listening to locate prey. Flights to capture prey are usually less than 3 m, and prey may be taken in the air, from foliage or from the ground.

Moths form a large part of the recorded diet. Caterpillars, beetles, ants and click beetles are also reported. The species uses the understorey and can hunt on the ground.

Perch height: Usually about 5 to 10 m above ground.

Capture flight: Usually less than 3 m from the perch.

Perch spacing: A new perch is usually within 50 m of the previous perch.

Diet: Moths, caterpillars and beetles, with ants and click beetles also recorded.

  • Search moist understorey, rainforest edges, dense coastal scrub, paperbark forest and structurally complex wet eucalypt forest as likely foraging habitat.
  • Assess canopy edges, tracks, creek margins and small openings as well as continuous forest, because the species forages along canopy edges and changes perches frequently.
  • Retain low branches, dense foliage and understorey links between roost trees and nearby feeding areas.

Breeding habitat

Breeding information is limited, but the species uses moist forest with suitable hollows and nearby foraging habitat. Females may form small groups and use different roost types at different stages of the breeding cycle.

Breeding or mating activity is reported in May. Females give birth to twins in October, and lactation continues from October to December. During lactation, females prefer tree hollows to foliage roosts, although foliage roosts are used more commonly during the mating season.

Young are initially attached to the female for the first few days and are then left in the roost while the female forages. A breeding site therefore needs a secure roost, nearby feeding habitat and an unobstructed route between the two.

Breeding or mating period: May.

Birth period: October.

Litter size: Twins.

Lactation: October to December.

Gestation: Not stated in the supplied sources.

Age at maturity: Not stated in the supplied sources.

Lifespan: Not stated. The source gives an estimated reproductive life span of 1 to 8 years, with a mean of 1.5 years.

  • Retain hollow-bearing trees and connected moist forest around potential maternity roosts.
  • Avoid clearing or disturbing occupied hollows and nearby dense foliage during the breeding and lactation period.
  • Use an appropriately qualified fauna ecologist to inspect potential roost trees before works.

Breeding habitat: Breeding habitat features

Breeding habitat includes littoral and subtropical rainforest, moist eucalypt forest, coastal swamp forest and other associated moist forest with hollows in mature trees. Females may roost communally in small groups.

The species uses multiple roosts within a small area. In the supplied evidence, 25 probable animals occupied one timber box near Raleigh, although no breeding was recorded there.

  • Treat occupied hollows and groups of bats in roost boxes as potential maternity habitat until checked at an appropriate time by a qualified ecologist.
  • Retain surrounding foliage, epiphytes, understorey and canopy connections when a breeding roost is found.

Sheltering habitat

The species uses a wide range of small, sheltered roost sites. Hollows are especially important for females during lactation, while foliage and bark sites are also used during other periods.

Day roosts include tree hollows, peeling bark, dense foliage, palms, epiphytes, shallow depressions on trunks and branches, strangler fig roots and dead tree-fern fronds. Buildings are used less often.

Females usually roost in small groups of 2 to 7, while males generally roost alone. Roosts are commonly within 250 m of one another, and individuals frequently change roosts within a cluster of trees.

Female group size: Usually 2 to 7 animals.

Roost spacing: Roosts are usually within 250 m of one another.

Main roost features: Tree hollows, peeling bark, foliage, epiphytes, trunk and branch depressions, strangler fig roots and tree-fern fronds.

  • Inspect trees with accessible hollows, hollow-bearing trees, peeling bark and dense epiphytes before clearing.
  • Retain clusters of potential roost trees rather than isolated trees where practicable.
  • Protect foliage roosts and understorey around hollow trees, particularly during lactation.

Sheltering habitat: Development site controls

The NSW forestry prescription supplied in the sources requires inspection of likely microchiropteran roost trees before operations within 100 m of such trees where the species has been recorded in a compartment or within 5 km of its boundary. Likely roost trees include stags greater than 30 cm diameter at breast height, large trees with accessible base hollows and hollow-bearing trees.

The same prescription requires an exclusion zone of at least 50 m radius if a roost is located. A separate panel recommendation proposed a 200 m exclusion zone around roost sites for the Eastern Long-eared Bat. Project approvals and current NSW requirements must be checked before applying a control distance.

Pre-work inspection trigger in the NSW prescription: Within 100 m of likely roost trees.

Likely roost tree threshold: Stags greater than 30 cm diameter at breast height, large trees with accessible base hollows, or hollow-bearing trees.

NSW prescription exclusion zone: At least 50 m radius around a located roost.

Panel recommendation: A 200 m exclusion zone around Eastern Long-eared Bat roost sites was recommended in the statewide review.

  • Use a 50 m minimum roost exclusion zone where the supplied NSW forestry prescription applies, and check whether a 200 m site-specific or approval condition applies.
  • Do not fell or burn an occupied roost tree until the relevant approval, exclusion and fauna handling requirements have been confirmed.
  • Record the tree, roost type, bat numbers, photographs, inspection method and any proposed staged removal in the project fauna records.

Threats: Clearing and fragmentation

The main project risks are loss of moist forest, removal of roost trees, fragmentation and disturbance of roosts. The species is vulnerable in New South Wales and is listed as vulnerable under the EPBC Act in the more recent conservation advice supplied.

Clearing is identified as the highest-ranked disturbance for the species in the north-east forest assessment. Fragmentation is also ranked highly. Loss of littoral rainforest, coastal swamp forest, riparian vegetation and moist forest can remove both roosts and feeding habitat.

The Richmond River valley is noted as cleared and dry in habitat modelling, and the species has a restricted New South Wales range. Small retained patches may be less useful if connections between roost clusters and feeding areas are removed.

  • Avoid clearing moist forest, rainforest margins, swamp forest and hollow-bearing trees wherever practicable.
  • Retain connected vegetation around creek lines, forest edges and known roost clusters.
  • Treat isolated mature trees and dense foliage patches within cleared areas as potential roost resources.

Threats: Roost loss and disturbance

Loss of hollows is a recognised threat. Logging of hollows was ranked as a moderate disturbance, while the statewide review identified potential roost trees and recommended pre-work inspections and roost exclusion zones.

Disturbance can cause bats to leave a roost. Works near occupied hollows, foliage roosts, tree-fern roosts and communal roost boxes should be staged and supervised by a suitably qualified person.

  • Inspect potential roost trees before clearing, construction or hazard reduction burning.
  • Do not remove occupied roost trees or bat boxes without an approved fauna management method.
  • Replace or repair project-installed roost boxes where monitoring shows that they are damaged or unsuitable.

Threats: Fire, roads and other pressures

Frequent burning, wildfire, weed invasion, grazing, sand mining, dams, weed spraying and roadkill are listed as disturbances for the species. Fire can remove foliage, bark and hollow-bearing trees and can alter the moist forest structure used for roosting and foraging.

The supplied sources do not identify a species-specific disease threat or introduced predator threat. General controls for fauna projects should still prevent injury, retain escape routes and avoid trapping or handling bats without the required expertise and approvals.

  • Keep machinery, lighting and noisy works away from known roosts during occupation, particularly in the breeding and lactation period.
  • Maintain vegetated flyways along creeks and forest edges and avoid creating abrupt gaps between retained forest patches.
  • Prevent sediment, drainage changes and construction runoff from drying or degrading swamp forest and riparian habitat.
  • Use fauna spotter catchers with bat experience for clearing near potential roosts, and follow current wildlife handling and rehabilitation requirements.

Survey methodology: 1. Desktop assessment and habitat mapping

Survey the Eastern Long-eared Bat where works may remove or disturb lowland subtropical rainforest, wet or swamp eucalypt forest, coastal scrub, riparian vegetation, tree hollows, dense foliage or connected forest. Acoustic detection can show bat activity, but field identification may require capture because long-eared bat calls are difficult to separate reliably from sympatric species.

Map lowland subtropical rainforest, littoral rainforest, wet and swamp eucalypt forest, coastal scrub, riparian vegetation, paperbark forest, mature trees, hollow-bearing trees and connected vegetation before selecting survey locations.

Review records within and near the project area, including records in the relevant state wildlife database, and check current Commonwealth and state listings before works are approved.

Treat tree hollows, loose bark, epiphytes, dense foliage, palms, tree-fern fronds and strangler-fig roots as potential roost features.

Survey methodology: 2. Passive acoustic detection

Use bat detectors at habitat edges, beneath the canopy, along riparian corridors and near potential roost trees to identify areas used by microbats.

Use acoustic results to target follow-up searches, but do not rely on call detection alone to confirm the Eastern Long-eared Bat because identification by echolocation can be difficult.

Deploy detectors during suitable night conditions when bats are active, with particular attention to the first hour after sunset when activity is expected to be high near roost exits.

Survey methodology: 3. Harp trapping and mist-netting

Use harp traps or mist nets where lawful and where a qualified person considers capture safe, placing equipment in cluttered understorey, open flyways, forest edges, along creeks and near, but not across, potential roost entrances.

Give priority to structurally complex moist forest and understorey habitat because the species hunts close to the ground, from foliage and on the ground.

Survey on warmer nights during the active season where practicable, and avoid capture during unsuitable weather, excessive cold, heavy rain or strong wind.

Use a qualified bat handler for identification, weighing, measuring, photographing and release, and minimise handling time.

Typical foraging height: Perches are usually 5 to 10 m above ground, with flights of less than 3 m to capture prey.

Roost spacing: Roosts are usually within 250 m of one another.

Survey methodology: 4. Roost and habitat-feature inspection

Inspect hollow-bearing trees, loose bark, epiphytes, dense foliage, palms, tree-fern fronds, shallow trunk and branch depressions, strangler-fig roots and buildings for roosting bats before clearing.

Use spotlighting, binoculars and careful visual inspection from the ground, and only inspect hollows or access tree cavities when this can be done safely and by an appropriately qualified person.

Repeat inspections where works are staged or delayed because females may change roosts and use multiple roosts within a small area.

Survey methodology: Minimum effort and reporting

  • Set survey effort from the area and habitat affected, the quality of existing records and the likelihood of roost disturbance, and document the rationale where species-specific effort is not prescribed.
  • Record survey dates, start and finish times, weather, detector settings, trap or net locations, effort, habitat condition, capture details, photographs, call files and the basis for each identification.
  • Have a suitably experienced person verify captures and retain evidence for difficult identifications.
  • Submit verified records, including negative survey results where required, to the relevant state wildlife database and provide records to the project approval authority.
  • Check the current Commonwealth species list and current NSW listing before deciding whether a referral, approval, licence or additional survey is required.

Before habitat disturbance: Avoid and minimise

Plan the works around the bat's dependence on moist coastal forest, dense understorey and multiple roost features. The preferred outcome is to avoid clearing occupied roosts and retain connected habitat around them.

Avoid clearing lowland subtropical rainforest, wet and swamp eucalypt forest, coastal rainforest, coastal scrub, riparian vegetation and structurally complex understorey wherever practicable.

Retain hollow-bearing trees, mature trees, loose bark, dense foliage, epiphytes, palms, tree-fern fronds and strangler-fig roots that can provide day roosts.

Retain continuous vegetation along creeks and between forest remnants so bats can move between roosting and foraging areas.

Avoid removing groups of trees within the same local roosting area because the species uses multiple roosts and roosts are usually within 250 m of one another.

Before habitat disturbance: Buffers and approvals

Where there is a record of the species, establish at least a 200 m exclusion zone around the roost site in accordance with the documented NSW forest-practice recommendation, unless a current approval sets a different or larger requirement.

Apply any project approval, permit, threatened species licence, environmental management measure or fauna handling condition that is more protective than the minimum documented buffer.

Confirm whether the current Commonwealth listing makes the action a potential significant impact under the EPBC Act, noting that the supplied sources contain differing listing information and that the current list must be checked before works commence.

Obtain any required NSW fauna survey, capture, handling and relocation authorities before a fauna spotter catcher begins work.

Before habitat disturbance: Work planning and site preparation

Schedule clearing outside the main breeding period where practicable, noting that breeding is reported in May, with births in October and lactation from October to December.

Stage clearing from retained habitat towards open ground so animals have an escape route and machinery does not isolate roost trees or forest patches.

Prepare a fauna management plan that identifies habitat to retain, exclusion zones, pre-clearance methods, daily supervision, stop-work triggers, handling arrangements, release sites and reporting responsibilities.

Complete a pre-clearance survey immediately before works, mark retained trees and exclusion zones, and install exclusion fencing only where it will not create a barrier to normal bat movement or funnel animals towards machinery.

During habitat disturbance: Daily controls

Use active supervision during all vegetation removal and earthworks near suitable habitat. The fauna spotter catcher should control the sequence of clearing and have authority to stop machinery when a bat, roost or other habitat feature is encountered.

Inspect exclusion zones, fencing, access routes and retained vegetation before work starts each day.

Keep machinery, workers, lighting and storage areas outside marked roost buffers and retained habitat.

Clear vegetation in stages under the direct supervision of the fauna spotter catcher, with machinery stopped while trees or habitat features are inspected.

Avoid night work in or beside retained forest and roost habitat unless it is specifically assessed and approved.

During habitat disturbance: Fauna spotter catcher procedures

Position the spotter catcher where the clearing face, tree hollows, bark, foliage and escape routes can be seen clearly.

Stop the machine before it contacts a hollow-bearing tree, tree with loose bark, dense foliage clump, epiphyte mass, palm, tree fern, strangler-fig root or other suspected roost feature.

Do not enter a hollow, handle a bat or relocate fauna unless authorised, trained and equipped to do so under the project approval and relevant wildlife authority.

Use gloves, a suitable container and species-appropriate handling methods only when a qualified handler considers capture and relocation safe.

Release an uninjured bat into nearby retained habitat that provides cover and is outside the work area, following the approved fauna management plan and avoiding unnecessary transport.

During habitat disturbance: Habitat features and stop-work triggers

Treat any occupied hollow, bark shelter, foliage roost, nest-like structure, tree fern shelter or dense vegetation clump as a potential roost until assessed by the spotter catcher.

Stop work and establish a temporary exclusion zone if an Eastern Long-eared Bat, an occupied roost or evidence of recent bat use is found.

Stop work if clearing damages a retained roost tree, blocks a riparian flyway, causes excessive dust or noise within a roost buffer, or removes habitat marked for retention.

Do not fell an occupied tree until the authorised ecologist has assessed the roost, confirmed the approval pathway and documented the control measures.

Handle injured, torpid, pregnant or dependent bats as little as possible and transfer them promptly to a veterinarian or recognised wildlife carer through the approved chain of care.

During habitat disturbance: Records and incident response

Record each fauna interaction, including location, date, time, habitat feature, identification, photographs, action taken, release location, injury status and handler details.

Report a mortality, injury, unauthorised clearing within a buffer, occupied roost disturbance or other non-compliance to the site environmental manager and approval authority as required.

Reassess the remaining clearing area after every stop-work event and update the exclusion zone or method statement before machinery restarts.

After habitat disturbance: Post-clearance checks

Confirm that clearing has not left bats, roost features or movement routes exposed to avoidable harm. Continue controls until retained habitat and replacement measures are secure.

Inspect the cleared area, retained trees, exclusion zones, riparian edges and nearby structures for injured, trapped or displaced bats before the area is handed back to construction.

Check that no retained hollow-bearing tree, loose-bark shelter, dense foliage clump or marked roost feature has been damaged by felling, machinery or storage.

Remove temporary fencing only when it is no longer needed and will not expose retained habitat to construction traffic or funnel fauna into hazards.

After habitat disturbance: Monitoring and maintenance

Monitor retained moist forest, riparian vegetation, roost trees and any replacement roost structures during the periods and for the duration required by the approval or fauna management plan.

Inspect replacement or retained structures after works and record evidence of use, damage, weed invasion, changed drainage, lighting or loss of understorey cover.

Maintain connected vegetation and open riparian flyways, noting that post-construction monitoring has identified the importance of unobstructed flyways around bridges and culverts.

After habitat disturbance: Reporting and offsets

Provide the approval holder with a completion report covering clearing extent, habitat retained, buffers, fauna incidents, relocations, mortality, monitoring results and any corrective actions.

Submit verified new records to the relevant state wildlife database and update the project fauna register.

Apply any approved offset, restoration measure or compensatory habitat requirement only in accordance with the relevant approval, and do not treat an offset as a substitute for avoiding an occupied roost.

Rehabilitation actions: Restore habitat structure

Rehabilitation should recreate the moist, structurally complex forest conditions used for roosting and low-level foraging. Give priority to local coastal rainforest, paperbark, swamp and wet eucalypt vegetation that reconnects retained habitat.

Replant locally appropriate native rainforest, paperbark, swamp eucalypt and moist eucalypt species selected from the original vegetation community and approved rehabilitation plan.

Restore dense understorey, foliage layers, epiphytes and canopy edges rather than establishing an open, simplified planting.

Reinstate logs, coarse woody debris and natural ground cover where they were removed, because the species gleans prey from foliage, bark and the ground.

Retain developing trees for future hollow formation and install approved nest boxes or artificial roost structures only where natural hollows cannot be retained.

Rehabilitation actions: Water, connectivity and threats

Re-establish riparian vegetation and wetland edges where construction has affected creeks, swamp forest or drainage lines.

Reconnect isolated retained patches with native vegetation corridors and maintain clear, vegetated movement routes beneath or beside bridges and culverts.

Control weeds that simplify the understorey or smother native regeneration, using methods that do not disturb occupied roosts.

Limit artificial lighting, noise and night traffic beside retained roost and foraging habitat.

Rehabilitation actions: Monitoring and success measures

Monitor plant survival, canopy development, understorey density, weed cover, retained and replacement roost condition, riparian continuity and bat activity against the approved rehabilitation schedule.

Use passive acoustic monitoring and, where authorised, targeted roost inspection or capture to determine whether bats continue to use retained and restored habitat.

Investigate declining bat activity, damaged roost structures, loss of riparian cover, weed expansion or blocked flyways, and implement corrective actions promptly.

Manage fire in accordance with the approved ecological fire plan, avoiding inappropriate burning in moist forest, coastal swamp forest and roost exclusion zones.

Sources