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Cunningham's Skink (Egernia cunninghami)

Cunningham's Skink is a large, diurnal, rock-dwelling skink of forests and open woodlands in eastern and south-eastern Australia. It forms long-term family groups around rocky refuges, so clearing rock outcrops, refuge features and connecting debris can harm adults, young and dispersing animals on development sites.

Conservation status

South Australia, National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972: Endangered.

Breeding season

Cunningham’s Skinks mate mainly in November, give birth in January and February, and shelter in brumation from April to September. Clearing can affect newborns in summer and animals sheltering in rocky refuges during the cooler months.

Reproductive mode: Viviparous, giving birth to live young.

Litter size: Usually 1 to 8 young; other sources report up to 11, with a captive report of up to 19.

Gestation: Not recorded from field studies; one captive observation recorded about 100 days between mating and birth.

Size at birth: 57 to 70 mm snout to vent length; captive young averaged about 120 mm total length at birth.

Age at maturity: About 5 years, at 190 to 200 mm snout to vent length.

Nest or egg sites: No nest site is recorded. Rocky crevices are long-term refuges, and females may give birth in the open when crevices are too narrow.

Breeding frequency: One litter per season or year.

Confirm timing locally using temperature, rainfall and pre-clearing observations, because breeding and activity dates can vary between sites and the available activity data are strongest for the Canberra region.

  • Mating: Mating occurs around November. A captive observation recorded mating in March, so local timing can differ from the documented wild pattern.
  • Gravid females: The exact gravid period is not recorded. Females mating around November and giving birth in January to February are expected to carry embryos mainly from November to January; a captive record shows that March mating and June birth can also occur.
  • Births: Live young are born mainly from January to February. Other sources describe births as occurring in late summer.
  • Newborns: Newborns are most likely to be present from January to February, following the documented birth period. Juveniles may remain with the natal group for up to 5 years.
  • Active period: Around Canberra, adults are inactive during brumation from April to September, indicating the main surface-active period is October to March. The documents do not define a separate peak of adult activity.
  • Winter inactivity: Brumation typically occurs from April to September. Animals shelter in rocky cracks and crevices and may not feed during this period.
  • Highest clearing risk: Risk is highest in January and February when newborns and family groups are present, and from April to September when animals may be confined to rocky refuges during brumation. Established outcrops, crevices, hollow logs, bark and debris can contain animals in any month.

Identification

Cunningham's Skink is a large, strongly built skink with a long, spiny tail and a mottled brown, reddish or black appearance. It is usually found basking on rocks or moving between rock crevices, logs and other cover.

Adults have keeled scales over the back, with the ridges becoming larger towards the tail base. The tail is encircled by large, spine-like projections. The head is enlarged, the neck is relatively distinct, and the legs are short, giving the animal a low, sliding gait.

Colour varies with the site. Animals may be light brown, rust-brown, dark brown or black, with paler cream, white or reddish mottling. Pale spots are often visible around the mouth, on the limbs and along the sides. Some southern animals have white spots on a black background with an orange or copper head and neck.

Snout to vent length: Up to 250 mm

Total length: About 350 mm

Weight: Up to 350 g

Identification: Similar species

The spiny tail and strongly keeled dorsal scales are the most useful field features. In captive New Zealand comparisons, Cunningham's Skink was distinguished from the smoother blue-tongued skink by its spiny appearance, although the Australian field context includes other skinks and requires care with identification.

No sex-specific external features are described in the supplied documents. Reliable field identification should focus on the species' size, enlarged head, keeled scales, spiny tail, colour pattern and association with rocky refuges.

Identification: Field signs

The supplied documents do not describe diagnostic tracks, scats, calls, nests, sloughs or eyeshine. Direct observation is therefore preferable, particularly where animals are basking on rocks or retreating into crevices.

Groups may be encountered together on exposed rocks or using the same retreat sites. A skink that inflates its body when disturbed is showing the species' documented anti-predator response, but handling and repeated disturbance should be avoided.

Distribution: States and regions

The species occurs across temperate parts of south-eastern and eastern Australia, mainly along and around the Great Dividing Range. It also has an isolated South Australian distribution in the Mount Lofty Ranges and Fleurieu Peninsula.

Cunningham's Skink occurs in south-east Queensland, New South Wales and central Victoria, on both western and eastern sides of the Great Dividing Range. In South Australia it is restricted to the cool-climate Mount Lofty Ranges and Fleurieu Peninsula, including the isolated population around Adelaide.

The supplied documents do not provide a complete list of IBRA bioregions, mapped localities or elevation limits. The national distribution should therefore be checked against current state records before works begin.

Distribution: Subpopulations and abundance

The documents identify a geographically isolated South Australian population and describe populations associated with rocky outcrops across the eastern range. They do not provide a national population estimate or a quantified population trend.

Local densities can be high where suitable rocky habitat is concentrated. Home ranges may be very small, while movement between sites can be limited by clearance and loss of shelter.

Largest reported social aggregation: Up to 26 individuals

Reported local density: Up to 368 adults per hectare

Typical post-maturity dispersal: Often less than 70 m

Smallest reported home range: About 8 m²

Habitat: Habitat types

Cunningham's Skink is associated with temperate forests and open woodlands that contain large rocky outcrops. Rocky shelter is the defining habitat feature, with logs and other debris also used during dispersal and for cover.

The species occurs in forests and open woodlands with rock outcrops. It is predominantly associated with rocky habitats, particularly large outcrops, ledges and boulder complexes.

Individuals and family groups bask on exposed rock surfaces and retreat between rock ledges. The same rocky sites can support an adult pair and several generations of offspring over long periods.

Habitat: Structural features

Important features include cracks, crevices, ledges and other tight spaces within large rock outcrops. Hollow logs, bark and other ground debris can provide temporary shelter, especially for animals leaving their natal group and seeking a home range.

The supplied documents do not give elevation limits, vegetation community names, rock dimensions or a minimum patch size. Site assessment should record the location and continuity of outcrops, refuge crevices, basking surfaces, logs and debris.

Foraging habitat: Diet

Cunningham's Skink feeds during the day around its rocky home range. Young animals eat a substantial proportion of invertebrates, while adults become mainly herbivorous.

Newborn skinks are primarily omnivorous, with a significant invertebrate component. Recorded prey includes insects, snails and slugs.

As animals mature, their diet shifts towards plant material. Vegetation, fruit and leaves are recorded foods, and plant material makes up 92.8% of the adult diet in the supplied source.

Adult plant material in diet: 92.8%

Recorded animal foods: Insects, snails and slugs

Recorded plant foods: Fruit and leaves

Foraging habitat: Foraging area

The species is diurnal and uses a home range that is strongly influenced by available rocky habitat. Home ranges can be as small as 8 m², although the documents do not provide a typical foraging distance or a separate feeding range.

Surveyors should inspect rock surfaces, outcrop margins, logs, bark and ground debris within and beside mapped refuge areas. Retaining connected cover can help maintain access to feeding sites.

Breeding habitat: Breeding biology

Cunningham's Skink is viviparous and forms monogamous pairs within long-term social groups. Breeding is associated with established home ranges and family-group refuges in rocky habitat.

Mating occurs around November. Females give birth to live young from January to February, with one litter per season or year. Litter size is reported as 1 to 8 young in one source and 1 to 11 in another.

Young are born at 57 to 70 mm snout to vent length and reach maturity at about five years, when they are 190 to 200 mm snout to vent length. Family groups may provide care or protection, and juveniles can remain with the natal group for up to five years.

Mating: Around November

Births: January to February

Litter size: 1 to 8 young, with another source reporting 1 to 11

Birth size: 57 to 70 mm snout to vent length

Age at maturity: About 5 years

Mature size: 190 to 200 mm snout to vent length

Litters per year: One litter per season or year

Gestation or incubation: Not stated in the supplied documents

Lifespan: More than 20 years known in the wild; up to 27 years in captivity

Breeding habitat: Breeding habitat features

Breeding groups use established rocky home ranges with cracks and crevices for refuge. Family groups commonly include an adult pair and several generations of offspring, so a breeding site can also be a long-term juvenile refuge.

Gravid females have been observed giving birth in the open when home crevices are too narrow for safe birth. Works should therefore avoid treating exposed rock margins as non-breeding habitat solely because a female is not inside a crevice.

Sheltering habitat: Rock refuges

The main refuges are tight spaces in rocky outcrops, ledges and crevices. Hollow logs, bark and other debris are also used, particularly by dispersing animals and when animals are avoiding predators or environmental extremes.

Extended family groups use cracks and crevices in large rock outcrops as long-term retreat sites. When threatened, a skink may enter a crevice and inflate its body, using its keeled scales and increased body size to wedge itself in place.

Rock ledges and crevices also provide shelter during the colder months, when the species enters brumation, typically from April to September.

Sheltering habitat: Other cover

Hollow logs, bark and other debris provide cover, particularly for animals that leave the natal group at maturity and search for a new home range. Dispersal is often short, at less than 70 m, and may depend on connected shelter between rocky sites.

The documents do not give a den size or a minimum crevice dimension. Before clearing, inspect and retain rock piles, outcrop margins, hollow logs, loose bark and debris that could connect occupied or suitable refuges.

Threats: Clearing and fragmentation

The main documented project-related concern is the loss and fragmentation of rocky habitat and the debris used during dispersal. Predation is also recorded, while the supplied documents provide no species-specific information on roads, fire or hydrology change.

Land clearance can restrict movement between populations because dispersing skinks use logs and other debris for shelter. Fragmentation is associated with reduced dispersal and can isolate long-term social groups that have high site fidelity.

Rock outcrops, crevices, ledges, hollow logs, bark and connected ground debris should be treated as potential habitat during site planning. Removing only the visible basking surface may still remove access to the refuge network below or beside it.

Threats: Predators and disturbance

Recorded predators include red-bellied black snakes and broad-headed snakes. Adult skinks can be difficult prey, but juveniles have high mortality, with only 33% reported to survive their first year.

Groups may defend young against predators, and repeated disturbance can cause animals to retreat into tight crevices. Spotter catchers should avoid blocking refuge entrances, separating family groups or repeatedly flushing animals during works.

Threats: Other pressures

The species is protected in all states and is listed as endangered in South Australia. It is not listed under the EPBC Act in the supplied project information.

The documents do not provide species-specific evidence on road mortality, changed drainage or fire responses. They also describe disease mainly in relation to poor captive husbandry, including metabolic bone disease and impaction, rather than as a documented development-site threat.

Survey methodology: 1. Habitat assessment and mapping

Cunningham's Skink is a diurnal, rock-dwelling species that uses large rock outcrops, cracks and crevices for shelter. Surveys should focus on rocky habitat and associated logs, debris and basking sites during the warmer active period, rather than relying on night searches.

Map all rocky outcrops, rock piles, crevices, hollow logs, fallen timber and other debris within the proposed clearing area and nearby retained habitat.

Record the condition and connectivity of rocky shelter sites, because young skinks may disperse less than 70 metres and use logs and debris while establishing a home range.

Give particular attention to sites that could support family groups, which may contain up to 26 individuals and can occur at densities of up to 368 adults per hectare.

Survey methodology: 2. Diurnal visual searches

Search during daylight when skinks are active and may be basking on top of rocks or moving between rock ledges.

Walk systematic transects through all suitable rocky habitat, including the edges of outcrops, crevices, fallen timber and debris.

Search during the warmer active months and repeat visits where initial searches could be affected by cool weather or low activity.

  • Inspect visible crevices from a safe position without inserting hands or tools into confined spaces.
  • Use binoculars or a camera where a crevice or rock face cannot be safely inspected at close range.
  • Record every animal, group, basking site, retreat site and likely movement route.

Survey methodology: 3. Targeted refuge and basking-site searches

Target rocks, logs, bark and other debris that could provide shelter for dispersing or recently established animals.

Inspect suitable refuge features before they are moved or disturbed, using an authorised fauna spotter catcher where handling or lifting is required.

Schedule searches to include periods when animals are likely to emerge and bask, while avoiding unnecessary disturbance to established family groups.

  • Check both sides of isolated rock outcrops and the margins of connected rocky habitat.
  • Search under or beside movable debris only when it can be replaced safely and without trapping an animal.
  • Treat a single observation as evidence that nearby crevices and associated habitat may also be occupied.

Survey methodology: Minimum effort and reporting

The supplied documents do not specify a fixed number of survey nights, hours, trap nights or transect kilometres for Cunningham's Skink. Set effort to cover all impact-area habitat and nearby retained rocky habitat, with repeat daytime visits where weather or access limits detection.

Use the relevant state fauna survey guideline and project approval conditions to set the final survey design, timing and any permit requirements.

  • Document survey dates, start and finish times, weather, temperature if recorded, observer names, search routes, search effort, habitat searched, animals detected and limitations.
  • Submit confirmed records and suitable photographs or location data to the relevant state wildlife database.
  • Report family groups, occupied crevices, basking sites and movement between retained habitat and the work area, not only individual animal locations.

Before habitat disturbance: Avoid and minimise habitat loss

Plan the project around the species' dependence on rocky shelter and its low dispersal distance. South Australian populations are listed as endangered, and the species is protected in Australia, so approvals and permits must be checked before works begin.

Retain large rock outcrops, rock ledges, crevices and connected refuge sites wherever practicable.

Retain logs, fallen timber, bark and other debris that may shelter dispersing young or provide temporary refuge.

Maintain connections between rocky sites because dispersal is often less than 70 metres and land clearance can restrict movement between populations.

Do not apply an assumed standard buffer to an occupied outcrop; set exclusion areas with the ecologist and relevant approval authority after considering the occupied crevice, family group and proposed disturbance.

Before habitat disturbance: Check approvals and permits

Confirm the species' status in the relevant state or territory before clearing, because it is listed as endangered in South Australia and protected in all states according to the supplied sources.

Check whether a state scientific, wildlife or relocation permit is required for survey, capture, handling or movement.

Check the current EPBC Act status and whether an EPBC referral is required for the proposed action, because the supplied project information identifies the species as not listed under the EPBC Act.

  • Include the species and its habitat in the project's environmental approvals register.
  • Ensure the fauna spotter catcher is authorised for the required handling and relocation work.
  • Follow any approval condition that sets a larger exclusion area, seasonal restriction, monitoring requirement or reporting deadline.

Before habitat disturbance: Plan timing and staging

Avoid scheduling clearing during the colder brumation period, typically April to September, where the approval and construction program allow.

Plan additional controls around the January to February birthing period, when females give birth to live young and family groups may contain dependent young.

Stage clearing so that retained rocky habitat remains available before adjoining shelter is removed.

Prepare a fauna management plan covering survey, exclusion zones, spotter catcher roles, animal handling, relocation, injury response, stop-work triggers and reporting.

Before habitat disturbance: Prepare the site

Complete a pre-clearance survey of all rocky habitat and associated logs, debris and potential refuge sites before machinery enters the work area.

Mark occupied outcrops, likely refuge crevices, retained habitat and no-go areas so they are visible to operators and supervisors.

Install exclusion fencing where it can protect retained rocky habitat and direct animals away from machinery without blocking access to suitable retained refuge.

Brief the crew on the species' spiny appearance, its tendency to wedge into crevices, and the requirement not to pull animals from shelter.

During habitat disturbance: Daily site controls

Use daily controls that keep machinery away from retained refuge and allow the fauna spotter catcher to inspect habitat before it is disturbed. A Cunningham's Skink may inflate its body and wedge itself into a crevice, so forceful extraction is unsafe and inappropriate.

Hold a daily pre-start briefing covering mapped outcrops, exclusion zones, active fauna controls and the spotter catcher's authority to stop work.

Inspect fencing, gates, signage and exclusion zones before work starts and after any plant or weather event that could damage them.

Keep machinery, spoil, materials and vehicles outside retained rocky habitat and mapped refuge areas.

Require the fauna spotter catcher to inspect each work area immediately before clearing, excavation, rock movement or debris removal.

  • Stop work if an animal is seen, if an occupied crevice is exposed, or if a mapped refuge feature must be moved before it has been checked.
  • Do not allow workers to chase, corner, pull or prise a skink from a crevice.
  • Keep dogs and unnecessary personnel away from occupied refuge and relocation areas.

During habitat disturbance: Spotter catcher and machinery interface

Give the fauna spotter catcher a clear line of communication with the operator and supervisor before machinery starts.

Work in small, controlled sections so the spotter catcher can inspect rocks, logs, debris and newly exposed crevices before the next section is disturbed.

Use hand tools or controlled movement of small refuge material where this is authorised and safe, rather than allowing machinery to roll or drag habitat without inspection.

  • The spotter catcher must remain in a safe position outside the plant exclusion zone unless the operator has isolated the machine and the site procedure permits entry.
  • The operator must stop immediately on the spotter catcher's signal.
  • Record each fauna interaction, including the feature disturbed, action taken, location and outcome.

During habitat disturbance: Animal handling and relocation

Only an appropriately authorised and experienced person should capture, handle or relocate a Cunningham's Skink.

If an animal is found, stop the activity, keep the area quiet, and allow the authorised handler to assess whether it can move into nearby retained rocky habitat without capture.

Relocate an animal only where authorised, to nearby suitable retained habitat with rocks, cracks or crevices and access to associated logs or debris.

Do not separate dependent young or disrupt a family group unless required for animal safety and permitted by the relevant authority.

  • Use suitable reptile handling procedures and equipment, and avoid grasping the tail or forcing the body from a crevice.
  • Place any injured animal in a secure, ventilated container and arrange prompt assessment by a veterinarian or authorised wildlife carer.
  • Do not release an animal into an isolated patch that is separated from retained refuge by the works.

During habitat disturbance: Stop-work triggers and records

Stop work when a Cunningham's Skink is found in the active work area, when an occupied refuge is exposed, or when clearing cannot proceed without damaging retained habitat.

Stop work if an animal is injured, trapped, buried, separated from dependent young or unable to reach suitable refuge.

Resume only after the fauna spotter catcher and site supervisor have confirmed that the animal has been managed and the relevant approval conditions have been met.

  • Record the date, time, precise location, animal condition, group size, habitat feature, handler, relocation site and photographs where permitted.
  • Notify the project environmental officer and the relevant authority when required by the approval, permit or fauna management plan.
  • Record all stop-work events, unsuccessful searches, injured animals, mortalities and damage to exclusion controls.

After habitat disturbance: Post-clearance checks

Post-clearance work must confirm that no animals or occupied refuge features were missed and that retained habitat remains usable. Monitoring should focus on outcrops, crevices, logs and movement routes adjoining the completed works.

Complete a fauna spotter catcher inspection after clearing and before backfilling, grading or sealing disturbed areas where refuge could have been exposed.

Recheck the edges of retained rocky habitat, nearby logs and debris, and any crevices opened by vibration or excavation.

Check that no animals have been trapped against fencing, in excavations, under materials or within construction compounds.

  • Remove temporary barriers only after the environmental officer confirms that the site is stable and no further fauna controls are required.
  • Replace disturbed logs, rocks and debris where approved and where doing so will not trap animals or create a construction hazard.
  • Keep retained outcrops free of spoil, waste, sediment and storage materials.

After habitat disturbance: Monitoring and control maintenance

Monitor retained rocky habitat during the active period using daytime visual searches and records of basking animals, groups and refuge use.

Maintain exclusion fencing, signage and access controls until the risk of construction-related injury has ended.

Investigate any decline in observations, injured animals or repeated movement into the work area and adjust controls with the ecologist.

  • Compare post-clearance observations with pre-clearance records, including group size, occupied refuges and habitat condition.
  • Continue monitoring for the period required by the approval or fauna management plan.
  • Do not interpret a lack of sightings as proof that a crevice is unoccupied.

After habitat disturbance: Reporting and offsets

Provide the regulator and project owner with the required survey, clearance, handling, relocation, injury, mortality and monitoring records.

Submit verified occurrence records to the relevant state wildlife database and retain the original location and habitat information.

Where residual impacts cannot be avoided or minimised, apply the relevant state or Commonwealth offset requirements and approval conditions; any offset should protect and manage suitable rocky habitat for the species.

Rehabilitation actions: Rebuild rocky refuge

Rehabilitation should rebuild the rocky shelter structure used by adults and family groups and provide connected refuge for dispersing young. The aim is to restore functional habitat, not just ground cover.

Retain and reinstate large rocks, rock piles, ledges and crevice-forming structures where safe and approved.

Place rocks so that they provide stable cracks and shaded refuge without creating collapse, crushing or entrapment hazards.

Reinstate logs, fallen timber, bark and other debris near suitable rocky habitat to provide shelter for dispersing animals.

Use salvaged local habitat material where permitted, and inspect each placement for trapped fauna.

Rehabilitation actions: Restore surrounding vegetation and connections

Replant locally appropriate native vegetation around retained and reconstructed outcrops to restore cover and maintain the species' forest and woodland habitat.

Maintain movement connections between rocky refuge sites, recognising that dispersal is often less than 70 metres.

Control weeds and prevent stored materials, erosion or sediment from filling crevices and separating refuge sites.

Do not introduce nest boxes as a substitute for rocky shelter unless monitoring shows a specific need and the design has been approved by the project ecologist.

Rehabilitation actions: Monitor rehabilitation success

Inspect restored outcrops, crevices, logs and debris for stability, weed invasion, erosion and evidence of use during the active period.

Use daytime searches to record basking animals, family groups, shelter use and movement between restored and retained habitat.

Set success measures in the rehabilitation plan, including survival of plantings, stable refuge features, maintained connectivity, absence of construction hazards and verified Cunningham's Skink use where the approval requires fauna outcomes.

Manage fire, predators and human access in accordance with the site's approved ecological management plan and the requirements of the relevant authority.

  • Repair failed rock structures, washed-out connections and damaged exclusion controls promptly.
  • Report monitoring results, corrective actions and any animal records to the project environmental officer and relevant authority.
  • Continue monitoring for the period specified in the approval or rehabilitation plan.

Sources