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Collared Kingfisher (Todiramphus chloris)

The Collared Kingfisher, Todiramphus chloris, is a medium-sized tree kingfisher found mainly in coastal northern Australia, especially around mangroves, but it can also use open woodland, grassland, farmland, gardens and some inland forest. On development sites, retaining mangroves, coastal vegetation, hunting perches and suitable nesting hollows or banks can help protect feeding and breeding birds. The species is listed as Vulnerable in New South Wales and is not listed under the EPBC Act.

Conservation status

New South Wales, Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016: Vulnerable.

Breeding season

The supplied sources provide breeding information from the first half of the year, including nesting recorded from December. Timing is likely to vary across Australia's broad range, so the calendar below is an indicative planning guide rather than a substitute for local records and pre-clearance checks.

Months are January to December. Local survey records, state requirements and advice from the relevant wildlife authority should determine project timing and controls.

  • Breeding: Nesting has been recorded from December through the first half of the year. Both parents incubate eggs and feed the young.
  • Young: Young leave the nest about 44 days after hatching. The supplied documents do not define the full period of post-fledging dependence.
  • Highest clearing risk: Clearing and disturbance are most likely to harm the species when eggs or dependent young are in cavities or burrows. The risk period is based on the documented December to first-half-of-year nesting period and may vary locally.

Identification

The Collared Kingfisher is usually detected by its bold white neck collar, large dark bill and loud repeated call. It often sits motionless on an exposed perch before making a swift, direct flight to prey.

Adults have blue to green upperparts and white to buff underparts. A broad white collar surrounds the neck. The bill is large and mainly black, with a pale yellow base to the lower mandible. Some forms have a pale stripe above the eye or a pale spot between the eye and bill, with a dark stripe through the eye.

Typical length: 23 to 25 cm

Typical weight: Male 51 to 90 g; female 54 to 100 g

  • Look first for the white collar, blue to green back, large black bill and exposed hunting perch.
  • The usual call is a loud, harsh and metallic kee-kee-kee, repeated several times. Regional call variation is expected.

Identification: Sex and age

Sexes are similar. Females tend to look greener than males. Juveniles are duller, with dark scaly markings on the neck and breast, and may have greener upperparts and buff underparts.

Identification: Field signs and separation

The species has no distinctive tracks or scats described in the supplied documents. Useful field signs are repeated calls, regular use of wires, rocks, bare branches, fence lines or low trees as hunting perches, and nesting holes or burrows in suitable substrates.

  • Do not rely on blue colour alone, because plumage varies from blue to green between geographic forms and between sexes.
  • Separate it from other kingfishers by confirming the combination of a conspicuous white collar, large black bill with a pale lower-mandible base, and the species' harsh repeated call. The supplied documents do not provide diagnostic comparisons with named Australian kingfisher species.

Distribution: Australian range

The species has a very broad range from the Red Sea across southern Asia and Southeast Asia to Melanesia and Polynesia. In Australia, the supplied documents identify northern Australia as part of the range, but do not provide a state by state or bioregion by bioregion distribution.

The Collared Kingfisher occurs in northern Australia, with records associated with coastal and mangrove habitats. The supplied material does not specify the full Australian state range or named bioregions.

  • Treat coastal northern Australian mangroves and adjacent open habitats as potential habitat during site assessment.
  • Check current state fauna databases and local records before clearing, particularly in New South Wales where the species is listed as Vulnerable.

Distribution: Global range and population

Across its broad range the species is described as common to abundant in many areas. The supplied documents do not provide an Australian population estimate, population density, trend, home range or defined Australian strongholds.

Global range: About 16,000 km from the Red Sea and East Africa through southern Asia and Southeast Asia to Papua New Guinea, northern Australia and the Samoan islands

Global status: Least Concern, based on broad distribution and generally common to abundant populations

Australian population: No estimate or trend is provided in the supplied documents

Habitat: Habitat types

The Collared Kingfisher is primarily a coastal bird, but it uses a wide range of terrestrial and wetland habitats. Habitat use can extend inland in some areas, especially on islands.

The main habitat is coastal mangrove swamp. Other recorded habitats include farmland, open woodland, grassland, gardens and parks. In parts of the range, birds occur inland in forest and mountain areas.

  • Inspect mangrove margins, tidal flats, coastal woodland, open clearings, gardens, parks, farmland and wetland edges.
  • Include adjacent open areas in habitat checks because the species commonly hunts from perches over exposed ground or shorelines.

Habitat: Structural features

Important habitat features include exposed perches such as wires, rocks, boulders, bare branches, fences and low tree limbs. Potential breeding features include rotten trees, tree hollows, arboreal termite nests, earth banks and existing woodpecker holes.

  • Map mature and dead trees with cavities, termite mounds and suitable earth banks before vegetation removal.
  • Retain suitable perches where they can be kept safe from construction traffic and machinery.

Habitat: Climate and elevation

The supplied documents describe a broad tropical and subtropical distribution and records from mountain areas on some islands. They do not provide an Australian elevation limit or a quantified climate boundary.

Foraging habitat: Diet

Collared Kingfishers are sit-and-wait predators. They usually watch from a perch, make a swift glide or direct flight to capture prey, then return to the perch.

Small crabs and shrimps are favoured in coastal areas. Other prey includes insects such as beetles, cicadas, stick-insects, grasshoppers, moths and butterflies, as well as spiders, earthworms, snails, frogs, lizards, small snakes and fish. Small birds and mice are taken occasionally.

Foraging habitat: Foraging sites and method

Coastal birds forage around mangroves, shorelines and exposed intertidal areas. They may search the seashore during low tide and dive from boulders or other suitable platforms. Inland birds hunt from wires, fences or low branches over open spaces.

  • Survey exposed perches and the open ground, mudflat, shoreline or grassed area below them.
  • Record whether construction will remove perches, reduce access to shorelines or alter tidal areas used for crab and shrimp prey.
  • Larger prey may be beaten against a branch before being swallowed. Indigestible remains are regurgitated as pellets.

Foraging habitat: Foraging range

The supplied documents do not provide a quantified foraging range or territory size. Birds may occur singly or in pairs and can remain inactive on a perch for long periods.

Breeding habitat: Breeding biology

Breeding occurs in enclosed cavities or burrows rather than in an open cup nest. Both parents incubate the eggs and feed the young.

The nest may be a natural tree hole, an old woodpecker hole, or a burrow excavated in a rotten tree, arboreal termite nest or earth bank. Some birds use banks near rivers and ponds or cavities in living and dead trees. Eggs are laid directly on the floor in some nests, although small nesting materials have also been reported.

Breeding season: Recorded nesting can occur from December through the first half of the year; timing may vary across the Australian range

Clutch size: Usually 2 to 5 rounded, whitish eggs; 2 to 4 eggs are also reported for Singapore birds

Incubation: Both parents incubate, but the supplied documents do not give an incubation period

Young: Both parents feed the chicks; young leave the nest about 44 days after hatching

Broods: Two broods may be raised in a year

Age at maturity: Not provided in the supplied documents

Lifespan: Not provided in the supplied documents

  • Search suitable cavities, termite nests and earth banks before clearing or ground disturbance.
  • Avoid disturbance around active nesting sites and retain the surrounding perch and feeding habitat where practicable.

Breeding habitat: Breeding behaviour

The species can be aggressive during nesting and may attack other birds or animals entering its breeding territory. This behaviour can help identify an active breeding area when combined with nest inspection from a suitable distance.

  • Keep observers and machinery away from suspected nest entrances until the site has been assessed by an appropriately experienced fauna spotter catcher or ecologist.
  • Do not block or fill a cavity, termite nest or bank burrow that could contain eggs or young.

Sheltering habitat: Known shelter and nest sites

The supplied documents identify breeding cavities and burrows, but provide little information on separate roosting or refuge sites. Adults commonly remain exposed on perches for long periods rather than staying hidden.

Potential shelter and breeding structures include natural tree hollows, old woodpecker holes, cavities in rotten trees, arboreal termite nests and burrows in earth banks. Banks near rivers and ponds may also be used.

  • Inspect dead and living trees, termite mounds, earth banks and cavities before clearing.
  • Protect the entrance and internal structure of any active or potentially suitable cavity or burrow until its status is resolved.

Sheltering habitat: Perches and cover

The species commonly perches on wires, rocks, boulders, bare branches, fences and low tree limbs. The documents do not give dimensions for hollows, burrows, roosts or ground-cover requirements.

  • Retain safe hunting perches and nearby open foraging areas where possible.
  • Use targeted pre-clearance searches because the absence of a visible bird does not rule out use of a cavity or bank burrow.

Threats: Clearing and fragmentation

The supplied documents do not provide a formal Australian threat assessment for the species. For projects, the main foreseeable risks are loss or disturbance of coastal habitat, nesting structures and feeding perches.

Clearing mangroves, coastal woodland, open woodland, gardens, parks or adjacent grassland can remove feeding habitat, perches and nesting structures. Fragmentation may separate cavities from nearby feeding areas.

  • Avoid clearing mangroves and mature or dead trees with cavities where practicable.
  • Stage clearing outside the locally confirmed breeding period where possible, subject to state approval and site-specific advice.
  • Retain connected vegetation and suitable open feeding areas around nest sites.

Threats: Construction disturbance and roads

Noise, machinery, vibration, people and vehicles near an active cavity or burrow may interrupt incubation or parental feeding. Roads and vehicle access can also remove perches and increase the chance of collisions or direct injury, although the supplied documents do not quantify road mortality.

  • Complete pre-clearance inspections of trees, termite nests and earth banks before machinery enters the work area.
  • Apply exclusion zones and timing controls around active nests in line with the relevant state requirements and project approval.
  • Prevent machinery, spoil, lighting and access tracks from encroaching on shorelines, mangrove edges and nest entrances.

Threats: Fire, predators, disease and hydrology

The supplied documents do not identify species-specific effects of fire, introduced predators, disease or altered hydrology. Changes to tidal access, shoreline condition or water levels could affect coastal prey and nesting banks, so these pathways should be assessed where relevant to the site.

  • Assess whether drainage, dewatering, culverts, bank works or altered tidal flows will change mangrove condition, intertidal feeding areas or nest-bank stability.
  • Record signs of disturbance or predation at nest sites and refer unusual mortality or sick birds to the relevant wildlife authority.
  • Avoid broad fire or fuel-reduction works that remove mature trees, dead trees, termite nests or coastal vegetation without a fauna assessment.

Survey methodology: 1. Diurnal habitat and bird searches

Survey effort should focus on coastal and freshwater edge habitats, particularly mangroves, open areas with exposed perches, and potential nesting cavities or burrows. The supplied documents do not provide an Australian species survey guideline or prescribed effort, so the project ecologist must set effort to suit the habitat, impact area and approval conditions.

Search during daylight when birds are active and visible from exposed perches such as wires, rocks, fence lines and bare branches.

Walk or scan all mangroves, coastal margins, open woodland, grassland, gardens, farmland and other retained habitat within and beside the impact area.

Record birds by sight and call, including the loud, harsh or metallic repeated call described as “kee-kee-kee” or “krek krek krek”.

Confirm identification using the white neck collar, blue to green upperparts, white to buff underparts, large black bill and pale yellow base to the lower mandible.

Record the number of birds, behaviour, perch location, flight direction, feeding activity and any territorial or nesting behaviour.

Adult length: 23 to 25 cm

Typical call: Loud, harsh or metallic repeated call, described as “kee-kee-kee” or “krek krek krek”

Common perches: Wires, rocks, bare branches, fences, boulders and low branches

  • Repeat searches where vegetation, tide, weather, access or visibility prevents a reliable inspection.
  • Map all records and potential movement routes between coastal, wetland, woodland and other retained habitat.
  • Do not treat an absence during one search as evidence that the species is absent from suitable habitat.

Survey methodology: 2. Nest and breeding habitat inspection

Inspect rotten trees, dead and living trees with cavities, arboreal termite nests, earth banks, river and pond banks, palm cavities and old woodpecker holes where access is safe.

Look for birds entering or leaving cavities, carrying food, territorial aggression, repeated activity at one feature, fresh excavation and faecal or prey remains near an entrance.

Treat a cavity, termite mound or earth bank as potentially active until it has been assessed by a suitably experienced ecologist or fauna spotter catcher.

Schedule breeding checks before vegetation or earthworks begin, because both parents incubate eggs and feed chicks, and young may remain associated with a nest for about 44 days after hatching.

Typical clutch: Two to five rounded, whitish eggs, with two to four glossy plain white eggs reported for Singapore

Nest types: Natural tree holes, old woodpecker holes, rotten trees, arboreal termite nests and earth banks

Parental care: Both parents incubate eggs and feed chicks

Fledging information: Young leave the nest about 44 days after hatching

  • Do not insert equipment into a cavity, block an entrance or disturb a termite mound or burrow during inspection.
  • Use remote observation where a close approach could disturb a nesting bird.
  • Obtain local advice on breeding timing because the supplied sources describe nesting timing for Singapore, not a single breeding season for all Australian populations.

Survey methodology: 3. Effort, conditions and detection records

Set the number of visits, search hours, transect coverage and repeat effort from the size of the impact area, habitat quality, access, visibility and likelihood of breeding or foraging use.

Document the survey dates, start and finish times, weather, tide where relevant, observers, search area, visibility, survey constraints and all detection methods.

Give additional attention to low-tide coastal areas because the species may search the shore for exposed prey.

Use repeated observation from suitable vantage points because the bird can remain motionless on a perch for long periods before making a swift, direct flight.

  • State clearly when no species-specific survey effort was available in the project documentation.
  • Record non-detections and explain whether suitable habitat was searched adequately.
  • Photograph or map habitat features that could be retained, fenced or affected by the works.

Survey methodology: Minimum effort and reporting

  • Complete a daylight habitat assessment and targeted bird search across all impact areas and adjacent retained habitat that could support perching, feeding or nesting.
  • Complete a targeted inspection of potential cavities, termite nests and earth banks before clearing or excavation.
  • Repeat the search when the initial visit is constrained by poor visibility, unsafe access, unsuitable weather or tide conditions.
  • Use experienced observers who can identify the species by its collar, plumage, bill and call.
  • Submit confirmed records and relevant survey data to the relevant state wildlife database and meet any project approval reporting requirements.
  • Retain maps, photographs, raw field notes, effort data, detection records, breeding observations and management decisions in the project file.

Before habitat disturbance: Avoid and minimise habitat loss

Avoid clearing suitable habitat first, then manage unavoidable impacts through staging, retention and supervision. The species uses coastal and mangrove habitat as well as open woodland, grassland, farmland, gardens and, in some areas, inland forest or mountain habitat.

Retain mangroves, coastal vegetation, wetland margins, open feeding areas, mature trees, dead trees with cavities, termite mounds and suitable earth banks wherever practicable.

Retain exposed perches such as suitable trees, rocks, wires or fence structures where they do not create a safety risk.

Maintain connected retained habitat between feeding areas, nesting features and nearby coastal or wetland habitat.

Keep the smallest practicable disturbance footprint and place access tracks, compounds and stockpiles outside retained habitat.

  • Treat any area used for repeated perching, feeding, nesting or movement as a habitat feature requiring a documented management decision.
  • Do not remove a potential nest feature solely because it is dead, rotten or partly damaged; those conditions can provide nest cavities.

Before habitat disturbance: Approvals and project planning

Check the current Commonwealth and state listing, approval and permit requirements before works begin, including whether an EPBC Act referral or state wildlife authorisation is required for the proposed action.

Prepare a fauna management plan that identifies retained habitat, survey results, exclusion areas, stop-work triggers, authorised personnel, rescue arrangements and reporting requirements.

Use local ecological advice to plan timing around any confirmed nesting activity rather than applying a single breeding season across Australia.

Stage clearing so that suitable habitat remains available while adjacent works are completed and fauna can move to retained areas.

  • Include a site map showing no-go areas, nest features, access routes, machinery limits, inspection points and fauna release areas.
  • Brief all workers on the species identification features, site controls, reporting chain and stop-work procedure before each clearing stage.

Before habitat disturbance: Pre-clearance preparation

Complete a pre-clearance inspection immediately before each clearing stage, including a search for perched birds, active nests, cavities, termite nests and earth-bank burrows.

Mark retained habitat, potential nest features, exclusion zones and fauna handling areas clearly on the ground and in the work plans.

Install exclusion fencing where it will prevent machinery, vehicles and personnel entering retained habitat without creating a barrier to bird movement.

Confirm that an authorised fauna spotter catcher, suitable transport equipment, a secure temporary holding arrangement and veterinary or wildlife carer contacts are available before clearing starts.

  • Do not rely on an earlier survey if the site has changed, clearing is staged over time or new habitat features are identified.
  • Inspect machinery and work areas for birds or other fauna before starting each day and after breaks or relocations.

During habitat disturbance: Daily controls and spotter coordination

Use active supervision wherever works can disturb potential feeding, nesting or roosting habitat. The fauna spotter catcher should control the sequence of work with the machine operator and stop work when fauna or an unmanaged habitat feature is found.

The fauna spotter catcher must inspect the work area, exclusion fencing, machinery access route and retained habitat before daily works begin.

Keep the spotter catcher in a position with a clear view of the active work face, nearby trees, cavities, termite nests, earth banks, open water and escape routes.

Use agreed radio or hand signals so the spotter catcher can stop machinery immediately and the operator can confirm that the instruction has been received.

Clear progressively in small stages, moving machinery only after the spotter catcher has checked the next area and confirmed that controls remain effective.

  • Keep workers, vehicles, spoil, materials and machinery outside marked exclusion areas.
  • Prevent unnecessary noise, vehicle movement and personnel entry near an active nest or occupied cavity.
  • Recheck retained habitat after high winds, flooding, fire, vegetation collapse or any change that could create new hazards.

During habitat disturbance: Habitat feature handling

Stop work before disturbing a hollow-bearing tree, rotten tree, termite nest, earth bank, old woodpecker hole, log, rock feature, wetland margin or other feature that could provide shelter, nesting or feeding habitat.

Do not fell, push over, fill, bury or relocate a potential nest feature until its status has been assessed and the fauna management plan allows the action.

Protect mangroves, coastal margins and wetland edges from sediment, spoil, vehicle access and unnecessary changes to drainage.

Retain suitable trees and cavities in place wherever practicable, because the species nests in natural holes, rotten trees, termite nests and earth banks.

  • Use an exclusion zone around any active or suspected nest and obtain ecological direction before resuming work.
  • Handle a habitat feature only under the approved method statement and with the required fauna authorisation and supervision.
  • Do not place relocated features where they obstruct the bird’s access to a retained feeding or nesting area.

During habitat disturbance: Response to a bird or nest

Stop the relevant activity if a Collared Kingfisher is found within the work area, is flushed repeatedly, enters machinery space or is associated with a suspected nest.

Allow an uninjured bird to leave under its own power where it can do so safely, and keep people and machinery away from its flight path.

Only an appropriately authorised and experienced person should capture or handle the bird, and handling should be limited to what is needed for immediate safety, assessment or approved relocation.

If relocation is required, move the bird only to nearby retained habitat that provides suitable perches, cover and access to feeding areas, following the fauna management plan and approval conditions.

Take an injured bird to a veterinarian or authorised wildlife carer as soon as practicable, using the project’s approved wildlife response procedure.

Record the location, time, condition, action taken, release or treatment location, people involved and any follow-up requirement.

  • Do not chase a healthy bird through vegetation or attempt repeated capture when it can move safely away from the work area.
  • Do not disturb an active nest to force adults or young to move.
  • Escalate any nest, injured bird, dead bird, repeated bird displacement or unauthorised habitat damage to the project ecologist and environment manager.

During habitat disturbance: Stop-work triggers and records

  • Stop work immediately when a bird, active or suspected nest, occupied cavity, termite nest or earth-bank burrow is within the disturbance area and the approved response is not clear.
  • Stop work when exclusion fencing fails, the spotter catcher loses visual control of the work face, or machinery enters a marked no-go area.
  • Stop work when an injured, trapped or dead bird is found until the fauna response and cause of harm have been assessed.
  • Record daily inspections, work areas cleared, habitat features encountered, fauna observations, incidents, controls, instructions to machinery operators and clearance approval for each stage.

After habitat disturbance: Post-clearance inspection

Post-clearance checks should confirm that no bird, nest or habitat feature was missed and that retained habitat remains usable. Keep controls in place while construction continues beside retained habitat.

Inspect each cleared stage after machinery has left, including tree bases, cavities, termite nests, earth banks, wetland edges, spoil areas and access routes.

Check retained trees, mangroves, open feeding areas and perches for damage, sediment, changed drainage, weeds or new barriers.

Look for injured or trapped birds and report any finding through the approved fauna response procedure.

  • Do not declare a stage complete until the fauna spotter catcher and project ecologist have signed the clearance record.
  • Reinspect after storms, flooding, fire, tree fall or other events that could alter retained habitat.

After habitat disturbance: Monitoring and controls

Monitor retained habitat for continued Collared Kingfisher use by recording birds, calls, perches, feeding activity, nesting activity and movement between retained areas.

Maintain exclusion fencing, no-go areas, sediment controls and access controls until construction risks to retained habitat have ended.

Investigate repeated absence from previously used habitat, repeated flushing, nest abandonment, injury or loss of feeding areas as a potential project impact.

  • Set monitoring frequency, duration and success criteria in the fauna management plan and approval conditions because the supplied documents do not specify an Australian monitoring schedule.
  • Use the same mapped observation points and recording method where practicable so results can be compared between visits.

After habitat disturbance: Reporting and corrective action

Report survey results, fauna incidents, nest outcomes, habitat feature losses, rehabilitation actions and monitoring results to the project environment manager and relevant regulators where required.

Update the fauna management plan when monitoring identifies unexpected use, injury, nest disturbance or ineffective controls.

Apply approved offsets or other compensatory measures where residual impacts remain and an approval or regulator requires them.

  • Submit confirmed records to the relevant state wildlife database.
  • Keep photographs, maps, inspection forms, handling records, veterinary or wildlife carer records and corrective action close-out evidence.

Rehabilitation actions: Restore habitat structure

Rehabilitation should restore the combination of perches, open feeding areas, coastal or wetland habitat and nesting features used by the species. Designs must reflect the local Australian habitat and any approval or offset requirements.

Re-establish locally appropriate mangrove, coastal, wetland-edge, open woodland, grassland or garden vegetation according to the pre-clearing habitat and the approved rehabilitation design.

Retain or plant trees that can provide elevated perches beside open foraging areas, while avoiding placement that creates safety conflicts or blocks required access.

Reinstate natural drainage and protect wetland and coastal margins from sediment, rubbish, vehicle access and uncontrolled erosion.

Maintain connected retained and rehabilitated habitat between feeding areas and potential nest features.

  • Use locally appropriate native species selected by the project ecologist for the site’s soil, salinity, hydrology and regional vegetation community.
  • Do not create dense plantings that remove all open hunting space beneath or beside perches.

Rehabilitation actions: Replace or retain nesting features

Retain suitable hollow-bearing and rotten trees in place wherever safe and consistent with the approved design.

Retain or reinstate suitable dead wood, termite-nest habitat and stable earth-bank features where they occur naturally and can be managed safely.

Install nest boxes only where an ecologist confirms that they are appropriate for the local population and can be maintained without increasing disturbance.

Position any approved artificial feature within retained habitat with suitable access, nearby perches and protection from machinery and routine human activity.

  • Do not remove natural cavities and assume that nest boxes will provide an equivalent replacement.
  • Inspect artificial nest features for occupation, damage and maintenance needs under the monitoring plan.

Rehabilitation actions: Manage threats and measure success

Control weeds and prevent vegetation changes that reduce open feeding areas, suitable perches, mangrove or wetland condition and access to retained nest features.

Manage erosion, altered drainage, rubbish, vehicle access and other project-related pressures that reduce feeding or nesting habitat.

Apply fire management that protects retained trees, cavities, termite nests, mangroves and rehabilitated vegetation, in accordance with the site fire plan and ecological advice.

Monitor bird presence, call detections, perching, feeding, nesting use, survival of plantings and condition of restored habitat.

Foraging diet to consider in habitat design: Small crabs and shrimps in coastal areas, plus insects, spiders, earthworms, snails, frogs, lizards, small snakes and small fish

Known breeding information: Two to five eggs are typical in the general species account, and young leave the nest about 44 days after hatching

  • Define success using measurable project targets such as survival of plantings, stable wetland or coastal margins, retained habitat condition and confirmed use by Collared Kingfishers where monitoring is required.
  • Record monitoring results, maintenance, weed treatment, fire events, nest-box inspections and corrective actions.
  • Continue maintenance and monitoring until the approved rehabilitation criteria are met.

Sources