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Brolga (Antigone rubicunda)

The Brolga is a very large Australian crane that depends on wetlands for nesting and roosting, but also feeds in grassland, cropland, open woodland and other non-wetland habitats. It is vulnerable to wetland loss, altered water regimes, disturbance and collision risks on development sites, with stronger legal protection in New South Wales and Victoria.

Conservation status

New South Wales, Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016: Vulnerable.

Victoria, Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988: Endangered.

Breeding season

Timing varies between tropical and temperate Australia. Breeding in the south is concentrated in spring, while northern breeding is generally later in the wet season and early dry season. Field checks should use local rainfall, inundation and recent records as well as the broad calendar below.

The months are a broad Australia-wide planning guide, not a substitute for a site inspection. Known breeding sites require the applicable state habitat buffer and disturbance controls.

  • Breeding in southern Australia: Southern Brolgas commonly breed from September to December. The Victorian breeding model also treated June to January records of pairs, nests, eggs or chicks as relevant breeding-season data.
  • Breeding in northern Australia: Northern breeding is typically reported from February to June and is associated with rainfall and wetland inundation.
  • Eggs, chicks and dependent young: In southern Australia, incubation is about 28 to 32 days and chick development to fledging is about 11 to 14 weeks. Parents may continue raising young for roughly one year. Northern timing follows the later breeding season.
  • Seasonal movement and flocking: Some Victorian birds are resident and others move seasonally between breeding and non-breeding areas. Dry-season flocks may persist for up to eight months, and Victorian movements between breeding and non-breeding areas have been recorded at about 6 to 96 km.
  • Highest clearing risk: Risk is highest where clearing or disturbance affects active nests, eggs, chicks, emergent cover or access between wetlands. The broad risk period spans the documented northern breeding season from February to June and the southern breeding season from September to December. Local inundation and breeding records should override this broad calendar.

Identification

Brolgas are conspicuous, very large cranes with long legs, a pale grey body and a distinctive red and black head pattern. They are most likely to be encountered in or near shallow wetlands, open grassland and agricultural areas.

Adults are pale grey with a broad band of bare red skin extending from the bill around the back of the neck, a black dewlap below the chin, and long grey to black legs. The bill is heavy and straight. Young birds are darker and lack the adult red head band and dewlap.

Adult colour: Pale bright grey body, red to orange bare head and neck skin, black dewlap, and long dark legs.

Juvenile colour: Darker overall, without the adult red head band and dewlap.

  • The species stands about 1 to 1.3 m tall and has a wingspan of about 1.7 to 2.5 m.
  • Males tend to be larger than females, but the documents do not provide a reliable field measurement for separating the sexes.

Identification: Similar species

The main similar species is the Sarus Crane, which overlaps with Brolgas in far northern Australia, including the Gulf of Carpentaria. The documents identify the Brolga as the only other Australian crane commonly encountered in the southern part of the range, while the Sarus Crane is restricted to far northern Australia.

  • Do not rely on location alone where the two species overlap. Confirm the identification from the full combination of size, body colour, head and neck pattern, bare skin and call.
  • Brolgas have a broad red band from the bill around the nape and a black dewlap. Genetic work confirms that hybridisation with Sarus Cranes can occur in the overlap area, so unusual birds should be documented carefully.

Identification: Field signs and behaviour

The call is a far-carrying, brassy or trumpet-like sound. Courtship and pair bonding involve bowing, bobbing, leaping, wing movements, trumpeting and tossing grass or sticks. Groups may perform these displays together.

  • Nests are platforms made from grasses and sticks, augmented with mud, and placed on an island or in shallow water.
  • A breeding wetland may contain an isolated nest surrounded by emergent vegetation. In Victoria, suitable breeding wetlands commonly have shallow fresh water about 30 to 50 cm deep and emergent vegetation about 90 cm tall.
  • Adults and chicks may use the wetland and nearby non-wetland areas, and wetlands are used for roosting during the day and at night.
  • Tracks, scats and eyeshine are not described in the supplied documents. Field identification should therefore focus on direct sightings, calls, nests, eggs, chicks and distinctive behaviour.

Distribution: National range

Brolgas occur across northern and eastern Australia, with a much smaller and more vulnerable south-eastern population. The species is still abundant in the northern tropics but is sparse across the southern part of its range.

The documented range extends through Queensland, the Northern Territory, Western Australia, northern and eastern New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia. The species formerly occurred more widely across Australia, but is absent from the south-east corner, Tasmania and the south-western third of the continent.

  • In New South Wales, records and predicted habitat span the north coast, south-eastern Queensland border region, tablelands, western slopes, Riverina, Darling Riverine Plains, Channel Country, Mulga Lands, Cobar Peneplain, Broken Hill Complex and Murray Darling Depression.
  • The NSW profile identifies known or predicted occurrences in bioregions and subregions including the Riverina, Darling Riverine Plains, NSW North Coast, South Eastern Highlands, New England Tablelands, NSW South Western Slopes, Brigalow Belt South, Channel Country, Mulga Lands and the Murray Darling Depression.
  • The Victorian distribution includes wetland areas across the state. The Victorian breeding model identifies additional suitable wetlands beyond recognised breeding sites, including wetlands that have not been surveyed or where breeding has not yet been recorded.

Distribution: Strongholds and population structure

Two broad genetic groups are supported in eastern Australia: a northern cluster including the Northern Territory, Queensland and northern New South Wales, and a southern cluster represented mainly by Victoria. New South Wales birds show mixed ancestry and may occur along a transition between the groups.

Northern population estimate: About 50,000 to 100,000 birds.

Victorian estimate: About 600 to 700 birds in the Victorian fact sheet, with census estimates remaining below 1,000 in the later genetics paper.

Eastern Australia aerial survey, 2023: 8,191 Brolgas counted across nearly 2,000 wetlands.

Genetic clusters: Northern and southern clusters, with mixed ancestry most evident in New South Wales samples.

  • The northern population is estimated at about 50,000 to 100,000 birds and is described as stable in the supplied research.
  • The south-eastern population is much smaller. Victorian census estimates are below 1,000 birds, with a Victorian fact sheet giving an estimate of 600 to 700 birds at the time of publication.
  • A 2023 eastern Australia aerial survey counted 8,191 Brolgas across nearly 2,000 wetlands, but the southern count was considered an underestimate.
  • Brolgas in Victoria show partial migration, with some birds resident and others moving seasonally between breeding and non-breeding areas. Movements between south-western and north-eastern Victoria were not observed in the cited tracking study.

Distribution: Site use and connectivity

Brolgas can use the same nesting site for many years. Genetic evidence suggests site fidelity and limited dispersal at short distances, while tracking in Victoria recorded seasonal movements of about 6 to 96 km in south-west Victoria and about 100 km between breeding and flocking areas more broadly.

  • A breeding wetland that dries before chicks fledge may require access to another suitable inundated wetland within about 2 km.
  • When assessing a project, map the nest wetland together with connected shallow wetlands, nearby foraging areas and known flocking sites rather than treating the nest wetland as an isolated feature.

Habitat: Wetlands and surrounding habitat

Brolgas are wetland-dependent cranes that use a wide range of open habitats around wetlands. Habitat value depends on water depth, inundation duration, vegetation structure and access to nearby feeding and roosting areas.

Brolgas use shallow freshwater swamps, marshes and other open wetlands, as well as grassy plains, well-watered farmland, ploughed paddocks, dry grassland and, at times, coastal mudflats. They may also forage on desert claypans.

Typical breeding water depth: About 30 to 50 cm.

Typical breeding inundation period: About 2 to 6 months.

Recorded nesting wetland size in Victoria: About 0.2 to 1,000 ha.

  • Breeding wetlands in Victoria are typically shallow, fresh and about 30 to 50 cm deep.
  • Suitable breeding wetlands generally remain inundated for about 2 to 6 months, allowing nest building, incubation and chick development.
  • Wetland size is highly variable. Victorian breeding wetlands range from about 0.2 ha to 1,000 ha.
  • Wetlands may be surrounded by woody vegetation or occur in open agricultural settings.

Habitat: Vegetation and structure

Emergent vegetation about 90 cm tall is a key feature of Victorian breeding wetlands. Pairs use it to build nests and to conceal or protect chicks from predators.

Typical emergent vegetation height at breeding wetlands: About 90 cm.

  • Inspect shallow wetland margins, islands and areas of emergent sedges for nests and breeding activity.
  • Retain connections between nesting wetlands and other shallow, vegetated wetlands where possible.
  • Assess both wetland and non-wetland areas because adults with chicks use both for feeding and movement.

Habitat: Climate and elevation

The supplied documents do not specify an upper elevation limit or a single climatic boundary. They describe a range from northern tropical Australia to temperate Victoria, with breeding timing linked to rainfall and wetland inundation.

  • Use local wetland hydrology and inundation history, rather than elevation alone, to assess habitat suitability.
  • Treat modelled suitable breeding wetlands as areas requiring field verification. The Victorian model explained more than 73% of variation in its input data but also over-predicted suitability in some wetlands.

Foraging habitat: Food and feeding method

Brolgas forage in wetlands and in surrounding dry or cultivated areas. They probe, turn over and excavate substrate with their heavy straight bill, sometimes feeding with the head fully submerged.

The diet is omnivorous and changes with seasonal availability. Documented foods include wetland plants, sedge roots and tubers, insects, crustaceans, molluscs, frogs and mice.

Plant foods: Wetland plants, sedge roots and tubers.

Animal foods: Large insects, crustaceans, molluscs, frogs and occasionally mice.

  • In wetlands, probe soft ground and submerged substrate with the heavy bill, using it like a crowbar to turn over material.
  • In northern Australia, tubers are commonly dug from the ground with the pointed bill.
  • Search dry grassland, ploughed paddocks and wetland margins as well as open water and shallow marshes.

Foraging habitat: Foraging area and movement

Pairs with chicks use the nesting wetland and surrounding non-wetland habitat for foraging. Adults may move between breeding wetlands, feeding areas and flocking sites as wetlands dry.

  • Maintain access between the nesting wetland and nearby feeding habitat.
  • If the nesting wetland dries before fledging, identify suitable inundated wetlands within about 2 km that chicks and adults could reach.
  • In Victoria, account for seasonal movements of about 6 to 96 km between breeding and non-breeding areas when assessing habitat fragmentation and infrastructure placement.

Breeding habitat: Breeding biology

Brolgas breed in shallow, vegetated freshwater wetlands. Breeding pairs are territorial around the nest, and successful breeding depends on water persisting long enough for incubation and chick development.

Brolgas form long-term pair bonds and perform elaborate courtship displays involving leaping, bowing, trumpeting and tossing vegetation. Both adults incubate the eggs and protect the nest.

Southern breeding season: Mainly September to December.

Northern breeding season: Typically February to June.

Clutch size: Usually two eggs.

Incubation: About 28 to 32 days. The Victorian breeding model uses about 30 days.

Age at maturity: Assumed to be about 3 years in the genetics study, based on estimates for Brolgas and related cranes.

Lifespan used in modelling: A maximum age of about 30 years was used in genetic simulations. Lower survival to 15 years was also reported for south-west Victoria.

Chick development: The Victorian breeding model allows about 11 to 14 weeks for fledging. The older Victorian fact sheet states that parents continue to raise young for roughly one year.

  • Breeding habitat should be assessed even where no nest has been recorded. The Victorian model identified suitable wetlands that were additional to recognised breeding sites.
  • Records of pairs in the breeding season may indicate potential breeding interest even when no nest, egg or chick has been documented.

Breeding habitat: Nest wetland requirements

Nests are platforms of grasses and sticks, with mud, on an island or in the water. In Victoria, breeding wetlands are commonly shallow freshwater wetlands with about 30 to 50 cm of water, about 90 cm emergent vegetation and inundation lasting about 2 to 6 months.

  • Look for nests in emergent sedges and other vegetation at shallow wetland margins and on wetland islands.
  • Retain shallow vegetated wetlands near the nest and maintain their hydrological connection where feasible.
  • Plan disturbance controls around the full breeding wetland and nearby foraging habitat, not only the nest location.
  • Treat an absence of recorded nests as inconclusive because many wetlands are rarely visited and private land is under-surveyed.

Sheltering habitat: Roosting and resting sites

Brolgas do not use dens, hollows or burrows. Their main sheltering and resting sites are wetlands, emergent vegetation, nesting platforms and open wetland or flocking areas.

Brolgas use wetlands for roosting during the day and at night. During the dry season they form large flocks that may persist for up to eight months annually.

Dry-season flocking: Large flocks may persist for up to eight months annually.

  • Inspect shallow wetlands, wetland margins, islands and emergent vegetation for roosting birds and signs of regular use.
  • Avoid assuming that a wetland is used only during breeding. Non-breeding roosts and flocking sites may be important when breeding wetlands dry.
  • Map nearby wetlands and open areas that could provide alternative roosting or flocking habitat during construction.

Sheltering habitat: Nest and chick cover

Emergent vegetation about 90 cm tall provides material for nest construction and cover that helps protect chicks from predators. Nests are built on grass and stick platforms, often with mud, on islands or in shallow water.

  • Search emergent vegetation carefully before ground disturbance, access track construction, vegetation removal or changes to water levels.
  • Do not rely on the absence of visible adults as evidence that a nest is absent. Adults may be feeding in surrounding habitat while a nest remains concealed in vegetation.
  • The supplied documents do not provide a standard nest buffer distance. Apply the relevant state guidance and site-specific ecological advice where a nest or breeding wetland is identified.

Threats: Clearing and hydrology

The main risks to Brolgas are loss and degradation of wetlands, changes to water regimes, disturbance and collision with infrastructure. Risks are greatest for the small south-eastern population and for breeding wetlands that are poorly recorded.

Clearing, drainage and agricultural conversion reduce wetland habitat. Altered river flows, water extraction, wetland drainage and changes in inundation can reduce breeding success and remove feeding or roosting habitat.

  • Avoid clearing shallow wetlands, emergent vegetation, wetland islands and connected wetland margins.
  • Prevent drainage, sedimentation, pollution and construction changes that could shorten the period of inundation or alter water depth.
  • Retain links between nesting wetlands and other shallow vegetated wetlands, especially where chicks may need to move within about 2 km if the nest wetland dries.
  • Assess temporary works, dewatering and changed runoff as potential habitat impacts, not only permanent clearing.

Threats: Infrastructure and disturbance

Brolgas are a species of concern for wind energy development because of potential disturbance and collision with turbines and associated infrastructure. Transmission-line collision is also identified as a threat.

  • Check mapped and modelled breeding wetlands during project planning, including wetlands with no previous breeding record.
  • Locate temporary and permanent infrastructure away from known and modelled breeding habitat where practicable.
  • Assess flight paths, movement between wetlands and flocking areas, overhead lines, roads and construction activity together.
  • Use state guidance for buffers around known breeding sites. The supplied documents do not state a universal buffer distance.

Threats: Predators, fencing and persecution

Red Foxes can take Brolga eggs and chicks. Excessive grazing, fencing and changes in vegetation structure can degrade habitat and increase collision or entanglement risk. Brolgas have also been poisoned or shot in the past, particularly where drainage pushed feeding birds into crops.

  • Inspect fences near wetlands and feeding areas for collision and entanglement hazards, and modify or remove unnecessary fencing where feasible.
  • Control or manage access and construction activity around breeding wetlands to reduce disturbance and avoid accidental damage to nests.
  • Record and report suspected persecution or illegal harm through the relevant state wildlife authority.

Threats: Population and genetic risk

The southern genetic cluster has a lower contemporary effective population size than the northern cluster and is more exposed to loss of genetic diversity under population decline scenarios. Wetland fragmentation and degradation may increase this risk.

Estimated effective population size at the selected threshold: Northern cluster about 443, southern cluster about 249.

Breeding success reported for south-eastern birds: About 10% on average in the cited studies, compared with about 50% in northern Australia.

  • Maintain habitat connectivity between breeding, feeding and non-breeding areas, especially in Victoria and south-eastern New South Wales.
  • Treat small or apparently isolated wetland populations as potentially important to regional persistence.
  • Use new reliable breeding and movement records to update project assessments and regional habitat mapping.

Survey methodology: 1. Review records and map habitat

Survey effort should focus on shallow, vegetated wetlands and nearby foraging, roosting and movement areas. The supplied documents do not provide a prescribed fauna survey effort, so the ecologist should set effort according to the wetland area, proposed disturbance, season, access and the likelihood of birds being present.

Before field work, review state records, local knowledge and recent aerial imagery, then map wetlands, drainage lines, seasonal inundation areas, open foraging areas and likely movement routes.

Prioritise wetlands with shallow freshwater around 30 to 50 cm deep, inundation for 2 to 6 months, and emergent vegetation around 90 cm tall, including sedge dominated areas such as Eleocharis wetlands.

Include nearby non wetland areas because adults with chicks forage outside wetlands, while wetlands provide nesting and daytime and night roosting habitat.

Survey methodology: 2. Wetland and vantage point searches

Search suitable wetlands from edges, elevated vantage points and access tracks, using binoculars or a telescope where this allows birds to be identified without entering the wetland.

Use quiet observation periods during the southern breeding season, generally September to December, and include the broader June to February nesting period used in the Victorian model when project timing allows.

Record Brolgas, pairs, chicks, nests, eggs, fledging activity, calls, roosting groups, tracks and feeding areas, together with the wetland condition and water depth.

  • Do not enter a wetland or approach a suspected nest merely to improve detection.
  • Treat an adult pair observed on a potentially suitable wetland during the breeding season as a potential breeding record, not proof of successful breeding.
  • Return to wetlands on more than one occasion where breeding status is uncertain, because the absence of a Brolga during one visit does not establish that the wetland is unused.

Survey methodology: 3. Targeted breeding and movement assessment

Inspect suitable wetlands for nests, eggs and chicks from a distance, and check adjacent shallow vegetated wetlands within 2 km because pairs may move chicks if the nesting wetland dries.

Survey connected wetlands and surrounding agricultural or open areas to identify foraging, roosting and movement habitat, particularly where works could sever access between wetlands.

Record the number of birds, age classes, behaviour, coordinates, date, time, water conditions, vegetation structure, photographs and the direction of travel.

Potential chick relocation distance: Up to 2 km between suitable inundated wetlands

Victorian breeding wetland water depth: About 30 to 50 cm

Typical inundation period for breeding habitat: About 2 to 6 months

Typical emergent vegetation height: About 90 cm

  • Plan breeding surveys for the period when local conditions provide shallow inundated wetland habitat and emergent cover.
  • Increase survey coverage where wetlands are difficult to access or rarely visited, because the Victorian model identified suitable breeding habitat that had not previously been recorded.
  • Use experienced observers who can distinguish breeding behaviour from non breeding flocking and foraging activity.

Survey methodology: Minimum effort and reporting

  • Prepare a project specific survey plan that states the number and duration of visits, observer qualifications, access constraints, weather and wetland conditions, and the area searched.
  • Repeat surveys when initial conditions are unsuitable, including when wetlands are dry, visibility is poor or disturbance prevents a reliable search.
  • Submit confirmed records and breeding observations to the relevant state wildlife database, including accurate coordinates, date, evidence type and breeding status.
  • Provide all records of nests, eggs, chicks, fledging, roosts and groups to the project ecologist and include them in the project fauna and approvals records.
  • Treat the Victorian habitat suitability model as a screening tool rather than proof that a wetland is occupied, and verify modelled habitat in the field.

Before habitat disturbance: Avoid and minimise

Plan works around wetlands and the habitat connections Brolgas use for breeding, roosting, foraging and movement. A recorded absence is not sufficient to dismiss a wetland, particularly where access and survey coverage have been limited.

Retain shallow vegetated wetlands, wetland margins, nearby open foraging areas and connected wetlands wherever practicable.

Avoid drainage, filling, sediment entry, altered water regimes and removal of emergent vegetation from wetlands that could support breeding.

Maintain access between nesting wetlands and other suitable inundated wetlands, including potential movement routes within 2 km of a nest or breeding wetland.

Keep works, vehicle movements, lighting and persistent noise away from known or suspected breeding wetlands and roosts, using a site specific buffer set by the approval and fauna ecologist.

  • Do not rely only on mapped or known breeding sites, because the Victorian model identified additional suitable habitat that had not previously been recognised.
  • Stage works so that the smallest practicable area is disturbed at one time and retained wetlands remain connected throughout construction.

Before habitat disturbance: Check approvals and permits

Confirm the species status and approval pathway before works begin. The supplied NSW profile records the Brolga as Vulnerable in NSW and not listed under the Commonwealth legislation.

Check current state legislation, local planning controls, waterway and wetland requirements, and any conditions applying in Victoria, NSW or another project jurisdiction.

Obtain any required wildlife research, handling, rehabilitation, relocation, clearing or transport authorisations before appointing the fauna spotter catcher.

  • Make an EPBC Act referral decision if the action may affect another nationally listed matter or a protected place, even though the supplied profile records the Brolga as not listed under the EPBC Act.
  • Put approval conditions, exclusion zones, stop work triggers and reporting contacts into the construction environmental management plan.

Before habitat disturbance: Plan the works and prepare the site

Schedule wetland disturbance outside the local breeding period where practicable, noting that southern breeding generally occurs from September to December and the Victorian modelling used June to February as the nesting period.

Complete a pre clearance survey close enough to the start of works to detect current nests, eggs, chicks, roosts and flocking areas, then repeat it if the site or timing changes.

Mark retained wetlands, nest buffers, access routes, movement corridors, no go areas and machinery exclusion zones before mobilisation.

Install exclusion fencing only where it will not block Brolga movement between wetlands or cause birds to concentrate against the fence.

  • Brief all workers on the Brolga identification features, wetland limits, speed controls, lighting controls, stop work triggers and fauna contact procedure.
  • Keep plant, spoil, fuels and washdown areas outside wetlands and their drainage paths.
  • Have a fauna management plan that names the authorised spotter catcher, wildlife carer or veterinarian, project ecologist and incident contacts.

During habitat disturbance: Daily controls and spotter catcher duties

Brolgas are large, conspicuous birds, but nests and chicks can be difficult to detect in wetland vegetation. Use an active exclusion and communication system, and stop work when approved controls no longer protect birds or wetland habitat.

Complete a daily pre start inspection of wetlands, wetland margins, access routes, exclusion fencing and any active breeding sites before machinery enters the work area.

Keep the fauna spotter catcher in direct communication with the operator and maintain a clear view of the ground, wetland edge and work path.

Control vehicle speed, reversing, lighting, dust, sediment and unnecessary noise near wetlands and roosts in accordance with the fauna management plan and approval conditions.

Keep workers and machinery out of retained wetlands, nest buffers and marked movement routes unless the approved method specifically permits entry.

  • The spotter catcher must have authority to pause work when a bird, nest, chick, injured animal or previously unmapped wetland feature is found.
  • Do not chase, herd, corner or repeatedly approach Brolgas to clear a work area.
  • Use a qualified and authorised person for any capture, handling or relocation.

During habitat disturbance: If a Brolga is found

Stop the affected activity and establish the bird’s location, behaviour, direction of movement and relationship to wetlands, nests or chicks.

Allow the bird to leave without pursuit where it can move safely to retained habitat.

If capture or relocation is necessary, use only the method authorised by the relevant approval and wildlife authority, and keep handling to the minimum required.

Relocate a bird only to nearby retained habitat that is suitable and approved by the fauna ecologist, with preference for connected wetland or open foraging habitat rather than an isolated release point.

  • Do not handle eggs, chicks or adults unless the person is authorised and the action is approved.
  • Treat a suspected nest, egg, chick or dependent juvenile as a stop work matter until the fauna ecologist confirms the control response.
  • Send an injured or heat stressed bird to an authorised wildlife carer or veterinarian through the approved wildlife response pathway.
  • Record the species, number of birds, age class, location, action taken, people involved and outcome.

During habitat disturbance: Habitat and stop work controls

Stop work if a nest, egg, chick, dependent juvenile, injured Brolga, unapproved wetland, roosting group or blocked movement route is identified.

Stop work if sediment, fuel, spoil, dewatering or machinery enters a retained wetland or changes water movement toward breeding habitat.

Protect wetland vegetation and water levels during works, because Brolga breeding depends on shallow inundated wetlands with emergent cover.

Handle logs, rocks, burrows and other fauna habitat features under the project fauna management plan, even though the supplied Brolga documents identify wetlands rather than these features as its principal breeding habitat.

  • Do not remove or relocate a nest or alter wetland water levels without approval from the relevant authority and advice from the fauna ecologist.
  • Restart work only after the stop work cause has been assessed, the control has been implemented and the decision has been recorded.

After habitat disturbance: Post clearance checks

Close out each work area by checking that no birds or breeding evidence remain exposed to ongoing risks. Continue controls where construction has changed wetland water, vegetation, access or disturbance conditions.

Inspect the cleared area, wetland margins, access tracks, stockpiles and exclusion fencing for Brolgas, nests, eggs, chicks, injured birds and trapped animals.

Check that retained wetlands remain accessible, connected and free from sediment, waste, fencing hazards and lighting or noise sources not covered by the approved controls.

Repeat checks after rainfall, flooding, dewatering, major earthworks or any change that creates shallow water or emergent vegetation.

  • Document the date, time, people, area checked, wetland condition, findings and photographs.
  • Escalate any bird injury, breeding evidence, mortality or wetland impact under the incident procedure and approval conditions.

After habitat disturbance: Monitoring and reporting

Monitor retained and restored wetlands during the relevant breeding period, with attention to pairs, nests, chicks, fledging, roosting groups, water depth, inundation duration and emergent vegetation.

Compare monitoring results with the pre works habitat map and baseline records, while recognising that the Victorian model is a prediction and not a substitute for field verification.

Submit new occurrence and breeding records to the relevant state wildlife database and provide monitoring results to the regulator or approval holder where required.

Key movement distance to monitor: Up to 2 km between nesting and alternative inundated wetlands

Victorian model validation result: More than 73% of variation in the input data was explained by the model

  • Track whether construction has reduced access between nesting wetlands and other suitable wetlands within 2 km.
  • Keep fauna observations, incidents, relocations, approvals, photographs and corrective actions in the project environmental records.

After habitat disturbance: Maintain controls and offsets

Keep exclusion fencing, wetland buffers, sediment controls, drainage controls and speed restrictions in place until the fauna ecologist confirms that the risk has ended.

Repair fencing or drainage controls immediately if they obstruct Brolga movement, direct birds toward machinery or alter wetland inundation.

Apply any approved offset, habitat protection or conservation management measure required by the project approval.

  • Use the approved offset or conservation plan rather than creating an unapproved wetland or release area.
  • Review controls if monitoring shows reduced wetland use, breeding failure, injury, mortality or loss of connectivity.

Rehabilitation actions: Recreate breeding wetlands

Rehabilitation should recreate the wetland conditions Brolgas use for nesting, chick rearing, roosting and foraging. Success depends on water regime, emergent vegetation, nearby foraging habitat and connection to other suitable wetlands.

Design or reinstate shallow freshwater areas that can hold about 30 to 50 cm of water for 2 to 6 months of the year, subject to the approved hydrology and local wetland type.

Establish emergent wetland vegetation around 90 cm tall, using locally appropriate native sedges and other wetland plants, including Eleocharis where it is suitable for the site.

Retain or reinstate gently connected shallow wetlands so a pair can move chicks if the primary wetland dries.

Avoid designs that create deep, steep sided or isolated ponds that do not provide shallow vegetated breeding habitat.

Target shallow water depth: About 30 to 50 cm

Target seasonal inundation: About 2 to 6 months

Indicative emergent vegetation height: About 90 cm

Potential chick movement distance: Up to 2 km

  • Use local seed or plant material where practicable and prevent introduced plants from replacing the emergent cover.
  • Do not assume that a wet depression is suitable until water persistence, depth, vegetation and surrounding habitat have been checked.

Rehabilitation actions: Restore surrounding habitat and connectivity

Reinstate open, low disturbance foraging areas around wetlands, including suitable grassland or agricultural areas where this is consistent with the approved rehabilitation design.

Maintain a safe connection between nesting wetlands, nearby shallow vegetated wetlands, daytime and night roosts, and non wetland foraging areas.

Remove temporary fencing, spoil piles and other barriers that could prevent movement between retained and restored wetlands.

Control weeds and manage grazing so emergent vegetation is retained during the breeding period and wetland margins are not trampled.

  • Do not plant dense woody vegetation across open movement routes where it would reduce access to wetlands or increase collision risk.
  • Manage foxes and other predators under the approved pest management programme, with priority around nests and chick habitat.
  • Apply fire management that protects wetland vegetation, maintains safe access and follows the site’s ecological fire plan.

Rehabilitation actions: Monitor rehabilitation success

Inspect restored wetlands after rainfall and during the breeding season to measure water depth, duration of inundation, emergent vegetation height and cover, weed presence and connectivity.

Record Brolga use, including arrival of pairs, courtship, nesting, eggs, chicks, fledging, roosting, feeding and movement between wetlands.

Use monitoring results to adjust water management, revegetation, weed control, predator control, grazing, fencing and fire management.

Continue monitoring long enough to assess whether restored habitat is used for breeding, not only whether water and vegetation have been established.

  • Set project success measures before works begin and link them to the approved rehabilitation and offset plan.
  • Submit confirmed Brolga records and breeding outcomes to the relevant state wildlife database.
  • Investigate and rectify low use, breeding failure, chick loss, wetland drying, weed invasion or blocked connectivity.

Sources