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Broad-headed Snake (Hoplocephalus bungaroides)

The Broad-headed Snake is an endangered Australian elapid restricted mainly to sandstone country in New South Wales, with habitat use split between exposed rock shelters and nearby woodland. Development can remove non-renewable bushrock shelters, hollow-bearing trees and movement habitat, and can increase road mortality and fragmentation.

Conservation status

Commonwealth, EPBC Act 1999: Endangered.

New South Wales, Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016: Endangered.

Breeding season

Broad-headed Snakes give birth from January to April, while mating extends from autumn to spring. Adults use sandstone shelters in cooler months and tree hollows within about 500 m of escarpments in warmer months, so clearing risk applies to both rock and tree habitat.

Reproductive mode: Live birth.

Litter size: Usually 4 to 12 live young. A demographic study reported a mean of 6.8 offspring and a maximum of 9.

Gestation: Not recorded.

Size at birth: 21.8 to 22.7 cm snout to vent length and 5.0 to 5.5 g.

Age at maturity: Males mature at about 5 years and females at about 6 years.

Nest or birth sites: No confirmed birth site is recorded. The species uses sandstone crevices, exfoliated rocks and nearby tree hollows as retreats.

Breeding frequency: Reported as annual to biennial in one demographic study, and approximately every 3 to 4 years in other profile material.

Confirm timing locally before works, using recent records and local temperature and rainfall conditions because seasonal movement between sandstone and tree refuges varies between populations.

  • Mating: Mating is reported from autumn to spring, March to November. Activity is described as most intense in autumn and spring, with captive matings recorded in September and October.
  • Gravid females: Gravid females are reported in summer, particularly in rocky refuges and cooler shaded areas as temperatures rise. The full period of carrying embryos is not recorded, so these marks show the documented summer presence rather than a confirmed gestation period.
  • Births: Births are reported from January to March in the NSW profile and from January to April in other species accounts. A separate demographic study recorded births in March and April, indicating variation between populations or records.
  • Newborns: Newborns are most likely to be encountered from January to March, with records extending to April. Litters contain 4 to 12 live young, and newborns move away from the female soon after birth.
  • Active period: Adults are nocturnal and can be active throughout the year. Surface movement and use of adjacent woodland and tree hollows increase during the warmer period, broadly November to April, although snakes may bask or emerge from shelters in winter.
  • Winter inactivity: During the cooler period, broadly May to October, most snakes shelter beneath thin, sun-exposed exfoliated rocks and in sandstone crevices. Winter sheltering is strongest in the colder months, but this is not confirmed brumation and snakes may bask or move.
  • Highest clearing risk: January to April overlaps births and newborns, while June to August overlaps concentrated use of exposed rock shelters. Clearing near sandstone outcrops also risks summer tree refuges, including large hollow-bearing trees within about 500 m of escarpments, so both habitat components should be checked year round.

Identification

The Broad-headed Snake is a medium-sized, brightly marked elapid associated with sandstone outcrops. Identification should be confirmed from a clear colour photograph, particularly because juvenile Diamond Pythons can look similar.

The upper surface is generally black, with yellow spots forming narrow, irregular cross-bands. Yellow scales can join the bands laterally to form a straight or zigzagged stripe along the body. The head is flattened on top and distinct from the body, and the belly is grey or greyish-black.

Typical length: About 60 cm on average

Maximum length: Around 150 cm

Body mass recorded in radio-tracking: 50.0 to 63.5 g

Identification: Similar species

Juvenile Diamond Pythons, Morelia spilota spilota, are superficially similar and may occur in the same area. The Broad-headed Snake has the characteristic irregular yellow cross-bands, a flattened distinct head and a grey or greyish-black belly. Do not rely on a brief sighting for identification.

  • Obtain a good quality colour photograph for any suspected record.
  • Forward photo vouchers to the relevant NSW fauna authority and the Australian Museum for confirmation and databasing.

Identification: Field signs and handling

The most useful field indication is occupancy of suitable shelter sites, including thin exfoliated sandstone, deep rock crevices and hollow-bearing trees. The species does not produce distinctive tracks, scats or calls that are described in the supplied sources.

During winter, snakes may be found beneath thin, sun-exposed rock exfoliations. During warmer months, they may be inside tree hollows, in hollow logs or beneath bushes. Active lifting of exfoliated rocks can break or alter shelter sites, so visual inspection with a torch is preferred.

  • Treat suspected snakes as venomous and use an authorised fauna spotter catcher for capture and relocation.
  • Replace any inspected rock exactly as found, without breaking, rotating or removing it.
  • Record the rock shelter, crevice, hollow tree or other feature associated with the observation.

Distribution: National and state range

The species is endemic to eastern Australia and is largely confined to sandstone ranges in New South Wales. The supplied sources identify known or predicted records across several NSW bioregions and subregions, but do not provide a reliable national population estimate.

The Broad-headed Snake is recorded in New South Wales, mainly within approximately 250 km of Sydney, from the sandstone ranges between Colo north of Sydney to Nowra on the south coast. An outlying population occurs near Bathurst.

States with supplied records or predictions: New South Wales

Approximate core range: Sandstone ranges within about 250 km of Sydney

Outlying population: Near Bathurst

  • The species is listed as Endangered under the EPBC Act and in New South Wales.
  • The NSW profile identifies known or predicted occurrence in the Sydney Basin, South Eastern Highlands, South East Corner and NSW South Western Slopes, with a predicted record in the NSW North Coast.

Distribution: Bioregions and strongholds

Known or predicted records include the Sydney Basin subregions of Burragorang, Cumberland, Ettrema, Illawarra, Kerrabee, Moss Vale, Pittwater, Sydney Cataract, Wollemi, Wyong and Yengo. Known or predicted records also occur in Capertee Valley and Capertee Uplands, Bathurst, Bungonia, Hill End, Kanangra, Bateman and the South East Coastal Ranges.

Northern study area: Yengo and Wollemi National Parks, about 100 km north-west of Sydney

Genetic structure: Northern and southern evolutionarily significant units are identified

Known distribution pattern: Fragmented and geographically restricted

  • The northern population studied in Yengo and Wollemi National Parks is a recognised genetic group.
  • Genetic evidence identifies a separate southern genetic group, and the two groups diverged approximately 800,000 years ago.
  • The Cumberland subregion record is geographically restricted to its south-western margins in the NSW profile.

Distribution: Population information

The supplied documents do not give a current total population size. They describe a severe historical decline, small populations and fragmented distribution. Radio-tracking studies recorded home ranges of individual snakes rather than population abundance.

Total population size: Not stated in the supplied sources

Trend: Historically declined substantially since European settlement

Mean home range in northern study: About 3.3 ha, compared with about 3.0 ha in a southern study

Habitat: Habitat types

Broad-headed Snakes require a linked combination of exposed sandstone shelter sites and nearby forest or woodland. Clearing either component can make otherwise suitable habitat unusable.

The species occurs in sandstone outcrops, escarpments, exposed cliff edges, open sclerophyll forest, dry eucalypt forest, open eucalypt woodland and heath. It is largely confined to Triassic and Permian sandstones, including the Hawkesbury, Narrabeen and Shoalhaven groups.

  • Retain exposed sandstone outcrops, escarpment edges, rock flakes and slabs.
  • Retain adjacent dry forest or woodland, rather than treating the rock shelter as an isolated habitat patch.
  • Assess both the rock and surrounding vegetation within at least 500 m of an escarpment or sandstone outcrop.

Habitat: Structural features

Important features include thin exfoliated sandstone over bedrock, crevices, rock slabs, large hollow-bearing trees, stags and hollow logs. Northern study sites were surrounded by open eucalypt woodland containing Sydney peppermint, narrow-leafed stringybark, yellow bloodwood, red bloodwood, grey gum and scribbly gum.

  • Map all rock outcrops, exfoliating slabs, crevices and large hollow-bearing trees before clearing.
  • Retain connectivity between outcrops and adjacent woodland used in summer.
  • Treat removal of bushrock or large hollow-bearing trees as a direct habitat impact, not only as vegetation loss.

Habitat: Elevation and climate

The species is described across low to high elevations. Its shelters provide access to suitable temperatures through the year: sun-exposed rocks warm the snakes in cooler months, while tree hollows provide cooler, more thermally variable retreats during hot weather.

Elevation range: Low to high elevation

Thermal pattern: Rock shelters are used in cooler months and tree hollows in warmer months

Summer tree shelter location: Usually within 500 m of sandstone escarpments, according to the NSW profile

Foraging habitat: Diet and feeding areas

The Broad-headed Snake is an ambush predator that forages at night in and around sandstone outcrops, woodland and sheltering structures. Its prey base is closely linked to retained rocky habitat and native forest structure.

The diet consists mostly of geckos and small skinks. Frogs and small mammals are also taken occasionally. The species is described as a brightly coloured ambush predator, so prey is likely to be taken during movements between or near shelter sites rather than through prolonged active searching.

  • Retain sandstone crevices, rock slabs, fallen timber and native ground cover that support small reptiles and other prey.
  • Retain adjacent woodland and hollow-bearing trees, which form part of the species' seasonal habitat.
  • Avoid assuming that cleared ground between an outcrop and woodland is unused without site-specific evidence.

Foraging habitat: Foraging range and movement

Radio-tracked snakes had individual home ranges from 0.01 to 9.89 ha in the northern study. The reported mean home range was about 3.3 ha. Mean movement distances between successive displacements were about 134 m in the northern population.

Recorded home ranges: 0.01 to 9.89 ha

Mean home range in northern study: About 3.3 ha

Mean distance between successive displacements: About 134 m in the northern study

  • Consider the full area used between rock shelters, tree hollows and nearby woodland when assessing clearing impacts.
  • Inspect likely movement routes and shelter features within and around the proposed work area, rather than surveying only the construction footprint.

Breeding habitat: Breeding sites

Breeding depends on the same linked rock and woodland habitat used by adults. Gravid females may remain near cliffs during summer, so sandstone escarpments and nearby shelter must be retained during the breeding period.

The species uses rocky outcrops, rock flakes, slabs and crevices as breeding habitat. Gravid females have been reported to remain near cliffs during summer. The broader habitat includes open sclerophyll forest, woodland and heath on sandstone.

  • Protect exposed sandstone and adjacent woodland from clearing during the breeding season.
  • Do not remove or disturb rock shelters near known or potential breeding habitat without species-specific approval and an authorised fauna management plan.

Breeding habitat: Breeding biology

The Broad-headed Snake gives birth to live young. Reproduction is infrequent and fecundity is low compared with many snakes. The supplied documents do not state a gestation period or a confirmed lifespan.

Breeding or birth season: January to March

Litter size: 4 to 12 live young

Breeding frequency: Approximately once every 3 to 4 years

Age at maturity: Up to 6 years

Estimated reproductive lifespan: 1 to 11 years, mean approximately 5 years

Gestation: Not stated in the supplied sources

Lifespan: Not stated in the supplied sources

Sheltering habitat: Winter and spring refuges

Shelter use changes markedly through the year. The species needs both thermally suitable sandstone refuges and nearby tree hollows, and may also use hollow logs or bushes on the forest floor.

During winter, and also in autumn and spring according to the NSW profile, snakes shelter in rock crevices and beneath thin, sun-exposed, exfoliated sandstone on exposed cliff edges. These rock-on-rock spaces provide thermal conditions for basking and refuge.

Rock shelter type: Thin exfoliated rock over parent bedrock, rock flakes, slabs and crevices

Typical aspect reported in earlier work: Western or north-western aspects

  • Do not lift, collect, crush or rearrange exfoliated sandstone.
  • Use torch searches of rock crevices rather than active lifting where presence needs to be assessed.
  • Fence or otherwise exclude machinery from mapped rock shelters during works.

Sheltering habitat: Summer refuges

In summer, snakes move to hollows and crevices in large trees within about 500 m of escarpments. Radio-tracked snakes frequently used hollow-bearing trees and selected trees with many hollows and relatively large diameter at breast height. Some snakes also used leaf litter, bushes and hollow logs on the forest floor.

Distance of summer tree shelters from escarpments: Within about 500 m

Tree feature: Large trees with numerous hollows and relatively large DBH

Other recorded refuges: Leaf litter, bushes and hollow logs

  • Retain large hollow-bearing trees, stags and hollow logs near sandstone outcrops.
  • Inspect trees proposed for removal for hollows before clearing and establish a fauna management response if a snake is found.
  • Retain groups of hollow-bearing trees, because individuals showed fidelity to particular trees and some trees were reused.

Sheltering habitat: Seasonal thermal refuge

The seasonal shift is thermally driven. In the northern study, used tree hollows never exceeded the snakes' estimated critical maximum temperature, while exposed rock crevices could become dangerously hot in summer. This supports retaining both shelter types and the vegetation linking them.

Winter refuge: Sun-warmed sandstone crevices and exfoliated rocks

Summer refuge: Cooler tree hollows, with occasional use of leaf litter and hollow logs

Shelter movement pattern: Rock shelters in winter, tree hollows in summer

Threats: Clearing and construction

The main project risks are removal of sandstone shelter, loss of hollow-bearing trees, fragmentation of linked habitat and direct mortality during works or vehicle movements. Small, isolated populations are also exposed to stochastic and genetic risks.

Removing bushrock from sandstone escarpments destroys non-renewable shelter sites. Clearing large hollow-bearing trees removes the summer refuge habitat needed near outcrops. Fragmentation can separate rock shelters from woodland and reduce movement between seasonal refuges.

  • Avoid clearing sandstone outcrops, exfoliated slabs, crevices and exposed cliff edges.
  • Retain woodland and large hollow-bearing trees within about 500 m of escarpments.
  • Use pre-clearing inspections by an appropriately authorised fauna spotter catcher, with particular attention to rocks, crevices, hollow trees, stags and hollow logs.
  • Prevent machinery, storage and spoil placement on rock shelters and movement routes.

Threats: Roads and direct mortality

Vehicle strikes are identified as a threat, with increasing human use and traffic leading to deaths of adults and young. Construction traffic can add a temporary mortality risk around sandstone outcrops and connecting woodland.

  • Apply low-speed controls and fauna awareness measures near known or potential habitat.
  • Schedule vehicle movements to reduce night-time traffic where practicable, because the species is nocturnal.
  • Record and report any injured or dead snake and preserve the location data for project monitoring.

Threats: Fire and vegetation change

Inappropriate fire timing, frequency or intensity can alter vegetation structure and prey availability. Vegetation overgrowth has also been identified as a threat to habitat, and intense wildfire can affect snake survival.

  • Assess fire proposals against the need to retain open, thermally suitable sandstone shelters and adjacent woodland structure.
  • Do not use fire to clear or manage habitat without a species-specific assessment of rock shelters, hollow trees and seasonal use.
  • Prevent slash, debris and dense regrowth from covering known rock shelters unless an approved restoration action requires it.

Threats: Collection and broader population risks

Illegal reptile collection, intentional or accidental harm during outdoor activities, and bushrock collection directly affect individuals and shelter sites. The small population size, restricted range and fragmented distribution increase exposure to disease, natural catastrophes, demographic and genetic stochasticity, genetic drift, loss of genetic diversity and inbreeding.

  • Restrict access to known shelter sites where collection or repeated disturbance is a risk.
  • Do not disclose precise locations of vulnerable shelter sites beyond the personnel who need the information for compliance and protection.
  • Report suspected illegal collection or sale to the relevant NSW authority.

Survey methodology: 1. Map potential habitat and records

Survey this species where sandstone outcrops, exfoliated rocks, rock crevices and nearby dry forest occur. Survey design must cover both winter rock refuges and summer tree-hollow habitat, because broad-headed snakes move between these habitat types.

Define the project area and map sandstone outcrops, exposed cliff edges, flat sandstone rocks, rock crevices, large hollow-bearing trees and connecting dry forest before selecting survey sites.

Include adjacent forest within 500 m of sandstone escarpments or outcrops, because the species may move from sandstone shelters to large trees in summer.

Check state and Commonwealth databases, museum records, published records and local ecological reports, and assess whether the project is within the species’ known or predicted range.

Known habitat range: The species is largely confined to Triassic and Permian sandstones within approximately 250 km of Sydney, with records extending from the sandstone ranges north of Sydney to Nowra and an outlying population near Bathurst.

Summer tree habitat distance: Large hollow-bearing trees within 500 m of escarpments may be used in summer.

Survey methodology: 2. Winter torch searches of sandstone refuges

Search suitable westerly-facing sandstone cliffs, exposed rock outcrops, flat rocks and crevices by day during winter, when most records have been obtained from sheltering sites.

Use torches to inspect crevices and the spaces beneath suitable rock exfoliations without lifting or disturbing the rocks.

Treat active searching that lifts rocks as a potential source of damage. Do not break, lever or poorly replace exfoliated sandstone, because these structures are shelter sites and may be non-renewable.

Record the location, aspect, rock type, shelter feature, photograph and observer details for every detection or suspected detection.

Preferred survey period: Winter, particularly when snakes are sheltering beneath thin rock exfoliations.

Recommended search approach: Torch searches of suitable sheltering sites, rather than lifting rocks.

Survey methodology: 3. Warm-season searches of adjacent forest

Search adjacent dry forest during late spring to mid-summer, when movement is greatest and snakes may occupy large dead trees with numerous hollows.

Inspect suitable large hollow-bearing trees, dead trees, tree hollows, hollow limbs, hollow logs and nearby leaf litter from the ground, using a qualified person where climbing or specialised equipment is proposed.

Use nocturnal spotlighting where it can be done safely and lawfully, particularly around large hollow-bearing trees and the forest between sandstone outcrops and escarpments.

Do not rely on a single vegetation type or only on trees immediately beside an outcrop. Northern snakes showed selection for some vegetation types and avoidance of others.

Greatest movement period: Late spring through mid-summer.

Seasonal shelter shift: Rock crevices and exfoliated rocks in winter, tree hollows in summer.

Study movement scale: Radio-tracked northern snakes had mean home ranges of about 3.3 ha and mean movement distances of 134 m between successive displacements.

Survey methodology: 4. Minimum effort and reporting

  • Use a site-specific survey plan that states the area searched, habitat features covered, dates, start and finish times, weather, observers, methods and limitations.
  • Schedule winter torch searches and warm-season forest searches where both habitat types are present; the guideline does not prescribe a fixed number of nights, hours, trap nights or transect length for this species.
  • Do not use pitfall trapping as a substitute for targeted searches of sandstone refuges or tree hollows unless a suitably qualified herpetologist has justified the method and obtained all required approvals.
  • Support every potential record with a good quality colour photograph and submit the record to the relevant state fauna authority and appropriate state museum for identification and databasing.
  • Submit confirmed records, negative survey results and habitat observations to the relevant state wildlife database and project records system.
  • Keep precise GPS locations confidential where required, because illegal reptile collection is a recognised threat.

Before habitat disturbance: Avoid and minimise habitat loss

Plan the project around the species’ two seasonal refuge types. Avoid removing sandstone shelter sites and large hollow-bearing trees, and treat the forest between them as habitat rather than as a buffer-free work area.

  • Retain sandstone outcrops, flat exfoliated rocks, rock flakes, slabs and crevices on exposed escarpments.
  • Retain large hollow-bearing trees and dead trees in dry forest adjacent to sandstone outcrops, particularly within 500 m of escarpments.
  • Avoid removing or disturbing bushrock, including for landscaping, access tracks, drainage works or temporary works compounds.
  • Retain connected forest between rock outcrops and summer tree shelters, and avoid creating isolated habitat patches or barriers to movement.
  • Keep vehicles, pedestrian access and recreational activity away from occupied or potential sandstone escarpment habitat where practicable.

Before habitat disturbance: Approvals and work planning

Commonwealth status: Endangered.

NSW status: Endangered.

  • Check whether the proposed action may significantly affect this EPBC Act listed endangered species and obtain project-specific Commonwealth advice or referral advice before works start.
  • Check NSW threatened species requirements where the project is in NSW, because the species is listed as endangered under NSW arrangements.
  • Obtain any required scientific, harm, capture, handling, relocation, animal ethics or fauna management approvals before a spotter catcher begins work.
  • Prepare a fauna management plan that identifies exclusion areas, retained rocks and trees, survey timing, stop-work triggers, authorised handlers, veterinary arrangements and reporting contacts.
  • Stage clearing so retained sandstone shelters, hollow-bearing trees and connecting forest remain available while work proceeds.

Before habitat disturbance: Pre-clearance preparation

  • Complete a pre-clearance habitat inspection and targeted survey before machinery enters potential habitat.
  • Mark all retained sandstone outcrops, rock flakes, crevices, large hollow-bearing trees, dead trees and connecting forest on construction plans and on the ground.
  • Establish exclusion fencing or clearly marked no-go zones around retained habitat where this will prevent accidental entry by machinery, vehicles and workers.
  • Brief all workers that bushrock must not be collected, moved or used for construction unless the approved fauna management plan specifically provides for handling.
  • Confirm a secure temporary holding container, capture tools, first aid materials, contact details for an authorised reptile handler, and a veterinarian or wildlife carer before clearing starts.

During habitat disturbance: Daily work controls

The fauna spotter catcher should control the work face, inspect habitat before disturbance and have authority to stop machinery. The species is venomous, and handling must be limited to appropriately authorised and experienced personnel.

  • Inspect the active work area each day before clearing, including sandstone outcrops, rock crevices, flat rocks, hollow-bearing trees, dead trees, hollow logs, leaf litter and vegetation within the approved disturbance footprint.
  • Use a fauna spotter catcher to remain in direct communication with the operator and to release each work area progressively rather than clearing the entire footprint at once.
  • Keep machinery outside marked exclusion zones and prevent workers from lifting, breaking, collecting or relocating sandstone rocks without approval.
  • Schedule work to avoid the species’ principal winter shelter period where practicable, and avoid late spring to mid-summer movement periods where warm-season habitat is being cleared.
  • Inspect fallen or felled trees and disturbed rock immediately after each operation before material is removed or chipped.

During habitat disturbance: Animal encounter and handling

  • Stop work immediately if a broad-headed snake is seen, exposed or suspected within the work area, and keep machinery, workers and the public away from it.
  • Do not catch, restrain or relocate the snake unless the person is authorised under the relevant approval and competent to handle a venomous snake.
  • Photograph the animal from a safe distance, record the GPS location and notify the project ecologist and fauna management contact.
  • Allow the authorised handler to determine whether the snake can move into nearby retained habitat or requires controlled relocation under the approved plan.
  • Use nearby retained sandstone or forest habitat that provides suitable shelter, rather than releasing the snake into an exposed or isolated area.
  • Take an injured animal to an approved veterinarian or wildlife carer through the authorised fauna management process, and record the outcome.

During habitat disturbance: Habitat feature handling and stop-work triggers

  • Treat any occupied rock crevice, exfoliated rock, hollow-bearing tree or hollow log as a stop-work feature until assessed by the fauna spotter catcher or ecologist.
  • Do not lift, break, drag or crush exfoliated sandstone during plant operation, excavation, access construction or material removal.
  • Stop work if exclusion fencing is damaged, a marked habitat feature is entered, a snake is found, an injured fauna incident occurs, or the approved clearing method cannot be followed.
  • Stop work and reassess if clearing exposes additional sandstone habitat or large hollow-bearing trees not identified in the pre-clearance inspection.
  • Do not resume work until the authorised project contact has documented the decision, any required fauna action and the revised controls.

During habitat disturbance: Records and incident reporting

  • Record daily inspection areas, personnel, weather, habitat features inspected, detections, photographs, GPS locations, handling or relocation actions, injuries and clearance approval.
  • Report suspected illegal collection, deliberate harm or unauthorised bushrock removal to the relevant authority.
  • Update the fauna management plan and construction team briefing after every detection, injury, escape, habitat breach or control failure.
  • Submit confirmed records to the relevant state wildlife database and the appropriate state fauna authority or museum.

After habitat disturbance: Post-clearance checks

Complete checks before the work area is released and continue monitoring where habitat has been retained, restored or affected. The monitoring plan should test whether shelter and movement habitat remain functional, not only whether vegetation has been replanted.

  • Inspect the cleared footprint, retained sandstone features, adjacent forest and retained hollow-bearing trees for trapped, injured or displaced fauna before demobilising the fauna spotter catcher.
  • Check that no bushrock, exfoliated slabs, rock crevices, dead trees or hollow logs were removed outside the approved footprint.
  • Repair exclusion fencing and signs, and maintain no-go areas for the duration of construction and any follow-up works.
  • Record all detections, including animals found after machinery has left, and submit suitable photographs and locations to the relevant state database.

After habitat disturbance: Monitoring and compliance

Seasonal monitoring focus: Winter for rock shelters, and late spring to mid-summer for movement and adjacent forest habitat.

  • Monitor retained sandstone refuges and adjacent hollow-bearing trees during the seasons relevant to the project, with winter checks of rock shelters and warm-season checks of forest and tree-hollow habitat.
  • Use repeat searches at the same marked habitat features where a project has removed or altered nearby habitat, so changes in occupancy can be compared with the pre-clearance record.
  • Inspect retained trees after storms, fire, pruning or construction vibration for loss of hollows, damaged limbs or changed access to hollows.
  • Keep monitoring records, photographs, GPS points, incidents, corrective actions and reports with the project environmental records.

After habitat disturbance: Restoration and offsets

  • Implement any approved rehabilitation, restoration or offset commitments for lost or degraded habitat, including sandstone shelter features and adjacent forest.
  • Do not treat an offset as a substitute for avoiding damage to occupied or potential habitat where avoidance is practicable.
  • Report non-compliance, unexpected habitat loss, mortality and monitoring results to the relevant approval authorities and the project regulator.

Rehabilitation actions: Restore rock and forest habitat

Rehabilitation should recreate the linked habitat used across the year: secure sandstone shelter sites, nearby forest with hollow-bearing trees and continuous movement habitat. Planting alone will not replace lost exfoliated rock or mature tree hollows.

  • Retain and protect existing sandstone outcrops, rock flakes, slabs and crevices during rehabilitation works.
  • Where an approved restoration design requires replacement shelter, use suitable quarried sandstone or other approved materials rather than sourcing bushrock from intact escarpment habitat.
  • Reinstate natural-looking rock shelter structures only under advice from a qualified reptile ecologist, and secure them against disturbance, collection and crushing.
  • Restore dry eucalypt forest around retained outcrops and along movement links using locally appropriate native species from the relevant vegetation community.
  • Retain fallen timber, hollow logs, leaf litter and standing dead trees where they are safe, because these features can provide shelter.

Rehabilitation actions: Replace lost hollows and control threats

  • Retain large hollow-bearing trees wherever possible, because artificial nest boxes do not immediately replace mature tree hollows used as summer shelters.
  • Install artificial hollows or nest boxes only where an ecologist has identified a deficit, selected a design suited to the species and established a maintenance and monitoring plan.
  • Control weeds and prevent dense vegetation overgrowth from reducing access to rock shelters or changing the structure of retained habitat.
  • Control feral goats where they damage sandstone escarpments or associated habitat.
  • Use fire planning that avoids inappropriate timing, frequency or intensity that could reduce suitable habitat, vegetation structure or prey availability.

Rehabilitation actions: Measure success

  • Set success measures for retained and restored sandstone shelters, tree hollows, forest connectivity, weed cover, feral goat impacts and broad-headed snake detections.
  • Inspect restored rock structures after construction, major rainfall, fire and other disturbance for collapse, erosion or unauthorised removal.
  • Monitor restored rock shelters in winter and adjacent forest and tree hollows in late spring to mid-summer using the approved survey methods.
  • Continue monitoring until the project ecologist and approval authority agree that the habitat features are stable and the management controls are effective.
  • Report monitoring results, failures and corrective actions to the project owner, relevant state wildlife authority and Commonwealth regulator where the action is subject to EPBC approval.

Sources