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Black Falcon (Falco subniger)

The Black Falcon is a large, dark Australian falcon of open woodland, grassland, shrubland, floodplains and agricultural areas. It is uncommon and wide ranging, with breeding habitat often centred on mature riparian trees and nearby open areas that support abundant prey, so clearing and disturbance can affect both nesting sites and feeding habitat on development sites.

Conservation status

New South Wales, Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016: Vulnerable.

Victoria, Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988: Critically endangered.

Breeding season

Timing varies across Australia. The table reflects the best documented pattern for eastern and southern populations, with tropical and coastal breeding records extending the range of possible timing.

Tropical and coastal populations may use different breeding timing. The Northern Territory population is described as a dry-season breeding migrant to tropical coastal floodplains, so local survey timing should be adjusted to regional records.

  • Pair formation and nest guarding: Pairs may reaffirm bonds from late summer, and available stick nests may be selected and guarded from April or May before laying.
  • Breeding and laying: Egg laying is mainly from July to September, with eastern Australian records from late June to August and occasional records to September or November.
  • Incubation and young in nest: Incubation lasts about 33 to 34 days. Nestlings remain in the nest for about 38 to 43 days and usually fledge from August to October in the documented eastern and southern pattern.
  • Dependent fledglings and dispersal: Fledglings remain dependent for about 7 to 8 weeks after fledging, gradually ranging farther from the nest before dispersing from the natal territory.
  • Highest clearing risk: Risk is highest from July to October when eggs, nestlings, fledglings and dependent juveniles may be present. Nest guarding and pair establishment can begin from April or May, so large stick nests and nearby trees should be checked before clearing.

Identification

The Black Falcon is a large, very dark falcon that can be difficult to identify at long range or in poor light. Confirm records carefully where the dark form of the Brown Falcon is present.

Adults are 45 to 55 cm long and are uniformly dark brown to sooty black. Typical pale features include the cere, eye-rings, feet and throat, with an indistinct black streak below each eye. Some birds show faint, narrow barring beneath the wings and on the tail.

The species has long, pointed falcon wings and a powerful, fast flight. It may be seen singly, in pairs or in family groups, and several birds may gather where prey is temporarily abundant.

Identification: Separating similar falcons

The dark form of the Brown Falcon is the main identification risk. A Brown Falcon usually shows a double cheek mark, longer legs, distinctly two-toned and barred underwings, and slower flight.

Black Falcons have been described as producing a rhythmic cackle. Brown Falcons have more irregular squawking and crowing sounds. Vocalisations should support, rather than replace, a careful assessment of structure and plumage.

Sexes can differ in appearance. Females may be uniformly dark, while some males are paler on the forehead, face, ear-coverts or crown and may show more visible barring on the tail. These features are variable and should not be used alone for identification.

Identification: Field signs

The most useful breeding sign is an old stick nest in a tall emergent tree, often originally built by a corvid or another raptor. Nests may be in living or dead trees, are usually 4 to 28 m above ground, and can be reused for several years if they remain intact.

Adults commonly perch on dead horizontal branches near the nest and use standing dead trees as lookouts, roosts and food-transfer sites. Prey remains, pellets and feather or fur fragments may occur below nest trees and regular roost trees.

Adults may become strongly defensive near nestlings and fledglings, circling, calling or swooping at people and other raptors. No diagnostic tracks, scats, burrows, hollows or eyeshine are described for this species.

Distribution: Range and regional occurrence

The Black Falcon is widely but sparsely distributed across Australia. It is highly mobile, and the available information indicates a broad continental population rather than isolated state populations.

In New South Wales, the species occurs mainly inland in arid and semi-arid country, with records also extending into the tablelands and coast. Some coastal and tableland records may be Brown Falcons, so identification should be checked carefully.

The documented habitat range includes inland floodplains, the sheep and wheat belt, subtropical coastal valleys in northern New South Wales and south-eastern Queensland, tropical coastal floodplains in the Northern Territory, central coastal Queensland near Mackay, and southern Victoria.

The species is recorded in woodland, shrubland, grassland, agricultural land, wooded watercourses, wetlands and floodplains. It can travel hundreds of kilometres, so an observation may represent a transient bird rather than a local breeding pair.

Distribution: Population and trend

Population estimates are uncertain. Broad-scale reporting data indicate a decline, particularly in south-eastern Australia, and the New South Wales Scientific Committee concluded that the species was continuing to decline.

The species is listed as Vulnerable in New South Wales. The supplied project information identifies it as Critically Endangered in Victoria and not listed under the EPBC Act.

Historical national estimate: Upper thousands to possibly 10,000 or more birds in the 1990s

Estimated New South Wales population: About 3,000 to 5,000 mature individuals, with fewer than 10,000 individuals considered likely

New South Wales reporting-rate trend: A 43% reduction from 1977 to 2006 in one continuous dataset

Eastern sheep and wheat belt trend: A statistically significant 38% decline over approximately three generations

New South Wales atlas distribution: Recorded in 59 one-degree grids in 1977 to 1981 and 55 grids in 1998 to 2002

Habitat: Habitat types

Black Falcons select open country where prey is available and tall trees or other elevated structures provide nest sites and lookout points. Prey density appears to be more important than particular plant species or vegetation condition.

Suitable habitat includes open woodland, riparian woodland, shrubland, grassland, agricultural land, floodplains, wetlands and wooded watercourses in arid, semi-arid, tropical and subtropical areas.

In agricultural districts, the species is associated with healthy riparian woodland remnants containing a diverse bird community and adjoining open fields or grazing country. Much of the best habitat in New South Wales is likely to occur on private agricultural or pastoral land rather than in reserves.

Habitat: Structural features

Important features include mature emergent trees, isolated trees on plains, standing dead trees, dead-topped trees, open flight paths and nearby open ground or water where prey can be detected and pursued.

Nest trees are commonly eucalypts or other mature trees in open, flat to undulating country. They may be in woodland, on floodplains, near wetlands or watercourses, or as isolated trees in agricultural land.

Typical nest-tree height: Mature trees are commonly 10 to 30 m tall

Typical nest-tree trunk diameter: About 60 to 167 cm at approximately 1.4 m above ground

Nest position: Usually 1 to 6 m below the canopy top and 0.5 to 3.5 m from the canopy edge

Habitat: Climate and elevation

The supplied sources identify broad climate zones and habitat settings but do not provide a reliable elevation limit. Do not exclude the species from a site solely because it is outside inland arid or semi-arid country, as breeding has been documented in tropical and subtropical coastal areas.

Foraging habitat: Diet

Black Falcons hunt over open country, wetlands, floodplains and agricultural areas, with activity concentrated where prey is abundant. They use trees and other elevated structures as lookouts and may travel widely between feeding areas.

The main prey is other birds, especially flocking, ground-feeding granivores such as pigeons, parrots, quail, button-quail, pipits, larks and songlarks. Small mammals, large insects and occasional carrion are also taken.

The diet varies between regions. In the south-eastern sheep and wheat belt, bird prey can dominate, while a Mackay study found mammals contributed approximately two-thirds of prey biomass. Recorded prey there included quail, waterbirds, rodents, Northern Brown Bandicoots, large insects and introduced rats.

Introduced Common Starlings, Rock Doves and European Rabbits may be taken. Reliance on rabbits has probably decreased after major rabbit declines in arid and semi-arid areas, increasing dependence on native prey.

Foraging habitat: Foraging behaviour

The species hunts over grassland, open woodland, agricultural fields, wetlands and watercourses. It often perches in standing dead trees or on dead branches before making hunting flights.

Birds may congregate after fire exposes prey, during quail or button-quail irruptions, or during locust plagues. This means locally important feeding areas can change quickly after disturbance or seasonal rainfall.

The home range is undetermined but is likely to exceed 100 km2. Falcons can travel hundreds of kilometres, so clearing a single feeding area may affect birds that nest well outside the project boundary.

Breeding habitat: Breeding biology

Black Falcons do not build their own nests. They select and defend existing large stick nests in tall trees or, less often, on artificial structures. Breeding sites require a secure nest, open flight access and nearby foraging habitat with adequate prey.

Pairing: Monogamous; some pairs remain together for several consecutive years

Egg laying: Mainly July to September in eastern and southern Australia, with records from late June to November

Clutch size: Usually 2 to 4 eggs, mean 3.3 eggs; the recorded range is 1 to 5

Incubation: About 33 to 34 days, mainly by the female

Nestling period: About 38 to 43 days, or approximately 6 to 7 weeks, to fledging

Post-fledging dependence: Usually about 7 to 8 weeks after fledging, with partial dependence continuing for at least several weeks

Generation length: Unknown for the Black Falcon; estimates for similar falcons are 6 to 7 years

Age at maturity and lifespan: Not stated in the supplied sources

Breeding habitat: Nest-site requirements

Nests are old stick bowls or platforms, usually built by ravens, crows or other raptors. The falcons may use a nest for several years if it remains intact, but they do not maintain it and may move if it deteriorates or is blown down.

Preferred sites are in the tallest living trees available, commonly emergent eucalypts in open country. Nests may be 4 to 28 m above ground and may occur in woodland, isolated trees, floodplains, footslopes, near wetlands or beside watercourses.

Adults need a clear approach to the nest, with open access on at least one side. Bare or dead branches near the nest are used for perching, copulation and prey transfers.

Typical distance to nearby dead or dead-topped trees: Usually within about 100 m of the nest

Documented nest spacing: About 15 km2 per pair in good arid-zone floodplain seasons, 134 km2 per pair in average to dry sheep and wheat belt years, and 700 m between two pairs near Mackay in one year

Breeding habitat: Breeding-site protection

Treat any large stick nest in a suitable tree as potentially important until it has been checked by a suitably experienced ecologist. Avoid clearing nest trees, nearby lookout trees and flight access routes, particularly from late autumn through the post-fledging period.

Keep observers and machinery well away from active nests. Adults can be highly defensive when chicks are branching or fledging, and repeated visits may cause disturbance or abandonment.

Sheltering habitat: Roost and lookout trees

Black Falcons use elevated trees and existing stick nests for roosting, nesting and handling prey. The species does not use dens, burrows or tree hollows as described in the supplied sources.

Standing dead trees, dead-topped trees and dead horizontal branches are important perches for adults and fledglings. Adults may use separate roost trees near the nest, and fledglings commonly perch in dead trees after leaving the nest.

At a Mackay site, regular roost and lookout trees were recorded from about 20 to 25 m from the nest to about 250 m away. These trees also supported prey transfers and feeding.

Sheltering habitat: Nest structures

Adopted nests are generally corvid-sized or larger stick structures. Typical corvid nests are about 60 by 40 cm externally, with an egg cavity about 15 cm deep. Larger nests built by kites or eagles can be substantially bigger.

Nests may occur in mature living or dead trees, isolated trees in treeless country, and occasionally on power pylons or rural windmill platforms.

Typical corvid nest size: About 60 by 40 cm externally, with an egg cavity about 15 cm deep

Height above ground: Usually 4 to 28 m

Threats: Clearing and habitat degradation

The main project risks are loss of mature riparian and remnant trees, degradation of open feeding habitat, disturbance at active nests and removal of dead trees. Threats can operate well beyond the immediate nest tree because Black Falcons use large home ranges.

Clearing semi-arid woodland, riparian woodland, isolated mature trees and agricultural remnants can remove nest trees, lookout trees, flight paths and prey habitat.

Overgrazing can reduce grassland bird prey and degrade riparian habitat. Removal of dead wood and dead trees removes perches and lookout sites used by adults and fledglings.

Fragmentation may reduce the availability of connected feeding areas and mature trees, although the species can cross large distances. Retain mature live trees, standing dead trees, dead branches and riparian vegetation wherever practicable.

Threats: Disturbance and infrastructure

Human disturbance near nests can affect breeding behaviour and may cause a pair to leave a site. A documented coastal pair abandoned an area after prolonged maintenance activity, vegetation works and increased visitation near the lake.

Power lines and wind turbines present collision risks. Retain clear flight paths around known nest trees and assess overhead wires, turbine locations and construction traffic in relation to regular flight routes.

Threats: Prey, contaminants and disease

Changes in prey abundance can affect breeding and site use. Rabbit declines reduced an important historical food source in arid and semi-arid areas, while intensive grazing can reduce quail, button-quail, pipits, larks and songlarks.

Pesticide residues may bioaccumulate when Falcons consume treated or contaminated prey. Rock Doves may also transmit diseases such as trichomoniasis to raptors, and Newcastle disease in pigeons has been identified as a potential threat.

Threats: Fire, predators and hydrology

Fire can temporarily increase access to prey by exposing animals, but the supplied sources do not establish a general fire response or a safe clearing interval after fire. Assess each site according to prey availability, nest trees, smoke and fire operations, and any active breeding.

Ravens, crows, cockatoos and other raptors may compete for or interfere with nest sites. Black Falcons also defend nests and fledglings against kites and other raptors.

Wetlands, lagoons and floodplains can provide important prey. Changes to water levels or wetland condition may alter waterbird and other prey availability, although a specific hydrological threshold is not provided.

Survey methodology: 1. Desktop and habitat assessment

Black Falcons are scarce, mobile raptors of open woodland, shrubland, grassland, agricultural areas, watercourses and wetlands. Surveys should focus on tall emergent trees, old stick nests, dead lookout trees, prey-rich open areas and flight paths between retained habitat and feeding areas.

Map wooded watercourses, wetlands, floodplains, open grassland, agricultural areas with scattered trees, riparian remnants and isolated mature trees before field work.

Identify mature living and dead trees that could provide nest sites, lookout posts, roosts or food-transfer perches.

Search records should be checked against the relevant state wildlife database and local atlas data because the species is widely but sparsely distributed and may occur hundreds of kilometres from a previous record.

No species-specific survey guideline is provided in the supplied documents, so survey effort should be set through a documented, risk-based survey plan for the project area.

Typical habitat: Woodland, shrubland and grassland in arid and semi-arid areas, especially wooded watercourses, wetlands and agricultural land with scattered remnant trees.

Potential nest tree: A mature emergent tree, living or dead, commonly in riparian woodland, with an old stick nest.

Typical nest height: 4 to 28 metres above ground.

Survey methodology: 2. Nest and tree inspection

Inspect the tallest available living and dead trees from a distance for large old stick nests, adult perches, prey remains, whitewash and repeated flight activity.

Give priority to trees with an old corvid or raptor nest, bare or dead horizontal branches, open flight access and dead trees within about 100 metres.

Do not climb or approach a suspected nest during the breeding period unless the work is authorised and the approach is necessary for an approved assessment.

Use repeated observations from concealed or distant vantage points to confirm whether a nest is occupied, rather than relying on a single visit.

Nest builders: Old nests built by ravens, crows or other raptors are commonly adopted.

Nest tree height: Mature trees are commonly 10 to 30 metres tall, with trunk diameters of 60 to 167 centimetres at about 1.4 metres above ground.

Associated dead trees: Dead or dead-topped trees used for perching and food transfer are typically within about 100 metres of the nest.

Survey methodology: 3. Diurnal vantage and flight surveys

Survey during daylight from points that provide views over open country, watercourses, wetlands, grassland, agricultural areas and tree lines.

Record solitary birds, pairs, family groups, territorial interactions, hunting flights, birds carrying prey and repeated movements to a tree or wetland.

Use vantage points that avoid approaching likely nest trees and maintain a clear view of the surrounding open feeding area.

Repeat observations across suitable weather and daylight conditions because the species is mobile, occurs at low density and may congregate temporarily where prey is abundant.

Social pattern: Individuals occur alone, in pairs or in family groups, and may congregate at prey concentrations after fires, during quail or button-quail irruptions, or during locust plagues.

Home range: The home range is undetermined but is likely to exceed 100 square kilometres.

Detection limitation: Reports on the NSW tablelands and coast can be confused with the dark form of the Brown Falcon.

Survey methodology: 4. Breeding season checks

Schedule additional checks from autumn through late spring, with particular attention from June to September, when pairs may guard nests, lay eggs and raise young.

Look for adults carrying prey, food transfers at the nest, fledglings in the nest tree and juveniles using nearby dead trees or logs as feeding stations.

Keep observers and machinery away from active nests because territorial defence is strongest before laying and during incubation, and adults may defend nestlings and fledglings aggressively.

Treat a nest as potentially active when adults repeatedly guard it, visit it, carry prey to it or show alarm behaviour, and obtain advice from the relevant wildlife authority before proceeding.

Egg laying: In eastern Australia, laying is generally from late June or July through August, with some records extending to September.

Incubation: About 33 to 34 days.

Fledging: Usually about 38 to 43 days after hatching, with some accounts giving 6 to 7 weeks.

Post-fledging dependence: Young may remain partly dependent until about 8 weeks after fledging.

Survey methodology: Minimum effort and reporting

  • Use a qualified ecologist to document the survey design, dates, weather, observers, vantage points, search areas, duration, habitat inspected and all detection and non-detection results.
  • Record the location of every suspected nest, active nest, perch tree, dead tree, prey concentration, wetland and flight path with photographs and coordinates.
  • Use experienced observers who can distinguish the Black Falcon from the dark form of the Brown Falcon by structure, underwing pattern, flight and call.
  • Submit verified records, including non-breeding observations and active nest records, to the relevant state wildlife database and atlas.
  • Report any active nest, repeated territorial behaviour or suspected breeding site to the project ecologist and the relevant state wildlife authority before disturbance proceeds.
  • Do not describe a site as unoccupied solely because no Black Falcon was seen during one visit.

Before habitat disturbance: Avoid and minimise

Avoid clearing or disturbing the trees and open feeding areas that support Black Falcons. The main project risk is loss or disturbance of riparian nest trees, old stick nests, dead lookout trees and prey habitat.

Primary habitat risks: Clearing of semi-arid habitat, overgrazing, degradation of riparian woodland and destruction of riparian nest trees.

  • Retain mature living and dead trees, especially emergent trees beside watercourses, wetlands, floodplains and open feeding areas.
  • Retain old corvid and raptor stick nests, even when they appear unused, because Black Falcons adopt vacant nests and may reuse them for several years.
  • Retain dead or dead-topped trees, bare horizontal branches and other established perches near potential nest trees.
  • Maintain connected riparian woodland and links between nest trees, wetlands, grassland and agricultural feeding areas.
  • Avoid removing native vegetation, dead wood and dead trees where the removal could reduce nest sites, lookout posts, prey habitat or flight access.
  • Keep project infrastructure, temporary compounds, access tracks and high-use work areas away from suspected nest trees and the surrounding flight and feeding area wherever practicable.

Before habitat disturbance: Approvals and permits

  • Confirm the species status and approval pathway in every state or territory where the project occurs before works begin.
  • Check whether the proposed action requires a state threatened species permit, wildlife licence, nest disturbance authorisation or other fauna approval.
  • Check the EPBC Act referral pathway where the species is nationally listed or where the relevant approval authority requires assessment of impacts on protected matters.
  • Obtain written advice before disturbing an active nest, breeding territory or dependent fledglings.
  • Include the Black Falcon, its habitat and all required controls in the project environmental management plan and fauna management plan.

Before habitat disturbance: Timing and staging

Breeding period to plan around: Pair formation and nest guarding can begin from autumn, laying is generally from late June or July to August, and fledglings can remain dependent until about two months after fledging.

  • Where practicable, schedule tree removal, noisy works and major ground disturbance outside the main eastern Australian breeding period of June to September.
  • Stage works so that retained nest trees, riparian woodland, wetlands and open feeding areas remain available while the project progresses.
  • Allow the ecologist to reassess suspected nest trees immediately before each stage, because a previously unused nest may be adopted.
  • Avoid concentrating disturbance around a nest tree when adults are guarding the nest or when fledglings are still using nearby trees.

Before habitat disturbance: Site preparation

  • Complete the pre-clearance survey within the period specified in the fauna management plan and before machinery enters the work area.
  • Mark exclusion zones around active nests, suspected nest trees, dead lookout trees, wetlands and retained riparian vegetation.
  • Install exclusion fencing where it can prevent plant, vehicles and people entering a nest or habitat exclusion area without blocking necessary flight access.
  • Brief machinery operators and spotter catchers on the identification features, alarm behaviour, nest locations, stop-work triggers and incident contacts.
  • Remove or relocate only those materials approved in the fauna management plan, and do not place spoil, equipment or lighting under retained nest or roost trees.

During habitat disturbance: Daily controls

Use a slow, supervised clearing process around retained trees, watercourses and suspected nest sites. The fauna spotter catcher must have authority to stop work and must work directly with the machinery operator and site supervisor.

  • Complete a daily pre-start inspection of active nest exclusion zones, retained trees, wetlands, access routes and any locations where Black Falcons were previously recorded.
  • Confirm that the fauna spotter catcher, operator and supervisor can communicate immediately by radio or agreed hand signals.
  • Keep machinery, people, dust, vibration, lighting and unnecessary vehicle movements away from active nests and dependent young.
  • Do not disturb, fell or trim a suspected nest tree until the fauna spotter catcher and ecologist have confirmed that the planned action is authorised.
  • Suspend work during conditions that prevent safe observation of trees and flight activity, including heavy rain, smoke or dust that obscures the work area.

During habitat disturbance: Spotter catcher and machinery interface

  • Use a staged approach, with the spotter catcher inspecting each tree, log, rock, wetland edge and ground disturbance area before machinery moves in.
  • Keep the machine stationary whenever the spotter catcher signals stop, leaves the operator's line of sight or needs to inspect a habitat feature.
  • Use low-impact, directional felling and place removed limbs and trunks where they cannot roll into retained riparian vegetation or wetlands.
  • Do not use machinery to push, drag or crush a tree containing an active or suspected nest until the project ecologist and approval authority have cleared the action.
  • Maintain a clear escape route for fauna and do not drive animals towards roads, open water, machinery or the active work face.

During habitat disturbance: Habitat feature handling

  • Retain old stick nests, nest trees, dead trees and established lookout trees unless their removal is specifically approved.
  • Inspect felled trees and large limbs for nests, birds, eggs and dependent young before cutting, chipping or loading them.
  • Keep retained logs and large branches on site where approved, because Black Falcons may use logs and branches as feeding stations and perches.
  • Protect wetlands, lagoons, watercourses and riparian woodland from sediment, fuel, chemicals, stock access and unnecessary vehicle movement.
  • Do not remove prey habitat such as native grass cover and scattered trees beyond the approved clearing footprint.
  • Treat any active nest, fledgling, injured raptor or repeated adult defence as a fauna incident requiring immediate advice from the project ecologist.

During habitat disturbance: Animal encounters, stop work and records

  • Stop work if a Black Falcon enters the work area, repeatedly alarms, defends a nest, carries prey to a tree, lands near dependent young or is found injured.
  • Do not chase, catch, relocate or handle an adult Black Falcon unless the person is authorised, trained and acting under the fauna management plan and relevant permit.
  • Keep people and machinery away from the bird and allow a clear flight path while the ecologist or authorised wildlife handler assesses the situation.
  • If relocation is approved, move the animal only to nearby retained habitat that is suitable, safe and within the approved relocation area.
  • Take an injured bird to an approved wildlife carer or veterinarian through the authorised wildlife response pathway, and do not provide food or medication unless directed.
  • Record the time, coordinates, behaviour, photographs, habitat feature, machinery activity, decision-maker, action taken and time work resumed.
  • Escalate any nest damage, bird injury, mortality, unauthorised clearing or repeated disturbance to the site supervisor, project ecologist and relevant authority.

After habitat disturbance: Immediate checks

Post-clearance work must confirm that retained habitat remains functional and that disturbance has not displaced breeding birds or removed important perches and nest structures.

  • Inspect the completed work area and all retained nest trees, dead trees, wetlands and riparian vegetation before removing fauna controls.
  • Check for damaged branches, fallen nests, injured birds, abandoned young, new access tracks, sediment deposition, chemical spills and changes to flight access.
  • Complete a final fauna sweep of the cleared area, machinery laydown areas, stockpiles and drainage lines.
  • Keep exclusion fencing and nest buffers in place until the project ecologist confirms that the risk has ended and any dependent young have dispersed.

After habitat disturbance: Monitoring and maintenance

Breeding monitoring window: Give particular attention from June to September, with follow-up into the post-fledging period because young may remain dependent for about 8 weeks after fledging.

  • Monitor retained nest trees and nearby dead lookout trees during the next breeding period, with additional checks if adults show territorial behaviour or repeated visits.
  • Monitor riparian vegetation, wetlands, open feeding areas and retained scattered trees for damage, weed invasion, grazing pressure and loss of connectivity.
  • Maintain sediment, erosion, access and exclusion controls until the site is stable and rehabilitation measures are established.
  • Investigate any reduction in adult visits, nest use, prey availability or fledgling survival where project disturbance coincides with an active territory.

After habitat disturbance: Reporting and offsets

  • Provide the landholder, regulator and project records with survey results, nest status, incidents, control inspections, rehabilitation progress and monitoring outcomes.
  • Submit verified records and breeding observations to the relevant state wildlife database and atlas.
  • Where approved impacts remain, implement the applicable offset or compensatory habitat measure required by the approval.
  • Record any departure from the approved clearing footprint and report it through the project's incident and regulatory reporting process.

Rehabilitation actions: Habitat restoration

Rehabilitation should restore the combination of tall trees, dead perches, open hunting areas, wetlands and prey habitat used by Black Falcons. Protecting existing mature and dead trees will usually provide habitat sooner than planting replacement trees.

Nest tree characteristics to restore: Mature trees are commonly 10 to 30 metres tall, with nests 4 to 28 metres above ground.

Perch provision: Dead or dead-topped trees within about 100 metres of a nest can provide perches and food-transfer sites.

  • Protect and regenerate riparian woodland along watercourses, lagoons and wetlands using locally native tree and shrub species suited to the site.
  • Retain scattered mature trees and dead trees within open grassland and agricultural areas, where they provide lookout posts, nest structures and flight access.
  • Plant future emergent trees in suitable locations, with enough open space around them for direct flight access and eventual crown development.
  • Retain or reinstate large logs and dead branches where safe and approved, particularly near retained woodland and wetland edges.
  • Do not remove old corvid or raptor stick nests during maintenance, and consider nest platforms or nest boxes only where designed and approved by a qualified raptor ecologist.

Rehabilitation actions: Prey habitat, weeds and threats

Known prey: Prey includes pigeons, parrots, quail, button-quail, other birds, small mammals, large insects and occasionally carrion.

Threat from pesticides: Eating introduced starlings and rock doves may expose Black Falcons to pesticide residues, and rock doves may transmit disease to raptors.

  • Restore a varied native grass and ground layer around woodland, watercourses and wetlands to support ground-feeding birds and other prey.
  • Manage grazing so that grassland prey habitat is not overgrazed and riparian woodland regeneration is maintained.
  • Control invasive weeds that suppress native ground cover, obstruct wetland edges or prevent safe access for monitoring.
  • Prevent pesticide, herbicide, fuel and chemical runoff into wetlands and prey habitat, and use integrated pest management where practicable.
  • Manage feral predators, pest birds and introduced rabbits in accordance with approved conservation and land management programs, without reducing lawful prey or causing secondary poisoning.
  • Plan fire management to protect nest trees, dead perches, riparian vegetation and the prey habitat needed after fire.

Rehabilitation actions: Success measures and monitoring

  • Monitor survival and growth of planted trees, regeneration of riparian vegetation, retention of dead trees and logs, wetland condition and ground-layer recovery.
  • Use fixed photographs and mapped inspection points to measure tree retention, canopy development, weed cover, erosion, grazing pressure and connectivity between habitat patches.
  • Record Black Falcon sightings, flight paths, perch use, prey activity, nest occupation and fledgling observations in the relevant state database.
  • Treat rehabilitation as successful only when approved habitat features are stable, access and threat controls are maintained, and monitoring shows use of the retained or restored area by Black Falcons or suitable prey.
  • Review rehabilitation actions if nest trees are lost, dead perches are removed, wetlands degrade, prey habitat is overgrazed or birds repeatedly avoid the restored area.

Sources