Azure Kingfisher (Ceyx azureus)

Conservation status

Commonwealth, EPBC Act 1999: Endangered.

South Australia, National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972: Endangered.

Tasmania, Threatened Species Protection Act 1995: Endangered.

Breeding season

The Tasmanian subspecies is resident in suitable river systems, with breeding concentrated from spring to late summer. Clearing and bank disturbance during the breeding period can affect eggs, nestlings and dependent young.

Seasonal activity is based mainly on the Tasmanian subspecies. The broader species account gives September to January breeding in Australia, with August to February in southern areas.

• Breeding, laying and incubation: Tasmanian breeding is recorded from September to February. Pairs excavate bank tunnels, lay 4 to 6 eggs and may produce two broods.
• Young in nest and recently fledged: Young remain in the nest for about 22 to 28 days, then become independent quickly and start feeding themselves within about 10 days of fledging. The timing can extend into March when late broods occur.
• Resident movement and dispersal: Adults are generally non-migratory and may remain within a territory throughout the year. Some seasonal movement is reported for the species generally, and young are expelled from territories annually.
• Highest clearing risk: The highest risk is September to February, when eggs, nestlings, fledglings and late broods may be present in river-bank tunnels and nearby territories. March may also carry risk where a late brood is still dependent.

Identification

The Azure Kingfisher is usually detected as a flash of blue moving low over water, or perched quietly on a branch above a creek or river. It is distinctive in Tasmania and is unlikely to be confused with another resident riverine bird.

Adults have deep royal blue to azure-blue head, neck and upperparts, often with a violet sheen. The breast sides and flanks are purplish, while the throat is pale orange-white and grades to orange-red on the belly and undertail.

The bill is long, slender and black. The legs and feet are red, with only two forward toes. The sexes are similar. Young birds have a darker cap and generally duller plumage.

Length: 17 to 19 cm

Typical weight: 29 to 35 g

Identification: Distinguishing features

The combination of glossy azure-blue upperparts, orange breast, red feet, long black bill and short tail separates it from other Tasmanian birds. A small orange spot occurs in front of each eye, and the white lores can appear as two white, eye-like spots when the bird is viewed head-on.

The Sacred Kingfisher is a reported vagrant in Tasmania but has metallic blue upperparts, a white breast and a different overall appearance. The Azure Kingfisher also differs from the Sacred Kingfisher in its close association with shaded watercourses, low perches and plunge-diving behaviour.

Identification: Field signs and calls

Adults commonly sit on branches overhanging water before making a short, fast flight and shallow plunge. The species is often elusive and may be detected from bridges, river walks, boats or other viewpoints along waterways.

The call is a high, thin or sharp squeaky whistle, described as a repeated 'pseet-pseet' or 'pee-ee, pee-ee', often given in flight. The nest is a narrow tunnel in an earth river bank, ending in a widened chamber. There are no tracks, scats, sloughs or eyeshine signs of value for routine detection.

• Inspect exposed or near-vertical earth banks beside water for small tunnel entrances, especially where the entrance is near the top of the bank.
• Record repeated sightings from the same overhanging perch or river section, as adults may defend permanent territories.

Distribution: Australian range

The species occurs across northern and eastern Australia and in Tasmania, with additional records from New Guinea, surrounding islands, the Moluccas and Lesser Sundas. The endangered Tasmanian subspecies is endemic to Tasmania.

In mainland Australia, the Azure Kingfisher occurs from the Kimberley region of Western Australia across the Northern Territory to Queensland, and along the eastern side of the Great Dividing Range through New South Wales and Victoria. It also occurs in Tasmania.

In Tasmania, records are associated with river systems on the south, west, north and northwest coasts, with outlying records in the northeast, east, central areas and Bass Strait islands. Reports from Flinders Island, Bass Pyramid and King Island are considered likely to involve vagrant birds from Tasmania or Victoria.

Australian states and territories: Western Australia, Northern Territory, Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania.

Tasmanian NRM regions: Cradle Coast, North and South.

Distribution: Strongholds and subpopulations

The apparent Tasmanian core breeding range is in western and northwestern Tasmania. The species is also recorded from at least 60 locations, 30 to 33 major catchments and additional sub-catchments, although the appropriate definition of a location is uncertain.

Examples of river systems and reserves associated with records include the Arthur, Salisbury and Jane rivers, Arthur-Pieman Conservation Area, Franklin-Gordon Wild Rivers National Park, Southwest National Park, Rocky Cape National Park and other reserves. Some occupied river sections occur on State forest.

Distribution: Population status

The Tasmanian subspecies is listed as endangered under the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 and the EPBC Act. Its distribution is disjunct, sightings are infrequent and there is no long-term monitoring project to measure demographic change.

The Tasmanian listing statement describes a continuing decline and severe fragmentation, with no subpopulation estimated to contain more than 250 mature individuals.

Tasmanian estimate: Fewer than 250 mature individuals in the summary of the listing statement.

Alternative estimate: Probably no more than 1,000 mature individuals, with low reliability.

Known river catchments: At least 30 to 33 major catchments in Tasmania.

Habitat: Riparian vegetation

The Azure Kingfisher is closely tied to water and is usually found along vegetated margins of rivers, creeks, lakes, swamps, billabongs, dams and, in some parts of its range, tidal estuaries and mangroves. The Tasmanian subspecies is most strongly associated with shady, overhanging riparian forest.

In Tasmania, typical habitat is the forested margin of a major river, often in wet sclerophyll or mixed forest with mainly eucalypt species. Vegetation may be dense, shady and overhanging the water.

The species can occur in urban parks beside rivers and at artificial ponds, but these records are not a substitute for the forested river habitat normally used by the Tasmanian subspecies.

Habitat: Structural features

Important habitat features include low branches or other perches over water, clear or slow-moving water containing small aquatic prey, and exposed or suitable earth banks for nest tunnels.

Water quality, prey availability and the condition of the stream bank are relevant when assessing potential habitat. Broad sections of intact riparian vegetation are particularly important where the species occupies a river system.

Elevation and climate limits: Not stated in the supplied documents.

• Retain overhanging branches and shaded streamside vegetation during works planning.
• Protect natural earth banks beside occupied or potentially suitable waterways from excavation, collapse, vibration and changes in water level.
• Assess potential habitat by checking riparian cover, water quality, prey availability and likely disturbance processes.

Foraging habitat: Diet

The Azure Kingfisher hunts from a perch over or close to water. It usually plunges shallowly into the water, then returns to a perch with prey.

Documented prey includes small fish, freshwater crayfish and other crustaceans, aquatic insects and their larvae, water beetles, spiders, locusts and small amphibians such as frogs and tadpoles. The bird may also take beetles and other terrestrial insects from the ground and dragonflies in the air.

Whitebait and trout fingerlings may be important locally, although the evidence for the importance of whitebait to the Tasmanian population is described as anecdotal.

Foraging habitat: Foraging sites and behaviour

Preferred foraging sites have branches or other perches overhanging the water, shade, and concentrations of small aquatic prey. Weirs may locally concentrate fish and provide feeding opportunities, although they can also alter water levels and banks.

Adults on mainland rivers are reported to maintain territories along about 200 to 500 m of river bank. Tasmanian territories appear to be smaller, but no reliable Tasmanian territory distance is provided.

Reported mainland territory length: About 200 to 500 m of river bank.

• Retain fishing perches and overhanging riparian vegetation where construction occurs beside water.
• Avoid creating turbidity or blocking shallow aquatic habitat during in-stream or bank works.
• Inspect weirs, backwaters and other places where small fish may concentrate, while assessing both feeding value and effects on nesting banks.

Breeding habitat: Breeding biology

Breeding pairs defend a territory and excavate a nest tunnel in an earth bank beside or very close to water. Protection of known nest banks is a stated management objective for the Tasmanian subspecies.

Pairs are generally monogamous. Both parents incubate the eggs and care for the young. Young birds leave the nest after about 22 to 28 days, become independent quickly and begin feeding themselves within about 10 days of fledging.

The species may produce two broods. Adults may use the same nesting hole in successive years, so an apparently inactive tunnel may still be an important breeding feature.

Tasmanian breeding season: September to February

Clutch size: 4 to 6 elliptical, glossy white eggs

Incubation and parental care: Both parents incubate and care for the young. The supplied Tasmanian source gives 22 to 28 days to fledging.

Age at maturity: Not stated in the supplied documents.

Lifespan: Not stated in the supplied documents.

Breeding habitat: Nest-site requirements

The nest is a widened chamber at the end of a narrow tunnel drilled into an earth bank. The entrance is usually near the top of the bank, and the bank is beside or very close to water.

The Tasmanian listing statement gives a tunnel length of 20 to 40 cm. Other species-level information gives longer tunnels, so measurements from mainland birds should not be applied automatically to Tasmanian nest sites.

Tunnel length reported for Tasmania: 20 to 40 cm

Nest position: Earth bank beside or very close to water, usually with the entrance near the top.

• Treat suspected nest banks as breeding habitat even when no bird is present at the time of inspection.
• Keep machinery, bank trimming, vibration and sudden changes in water level away from occupied or potentially suitable nest banks.
• Schedule intrusive bank works outside the September to February Tasmanian breeding period where practicable.

Sheltering habitat: Nest tunnels

The Azure Kingfisher does not use a den, tree hollow or nest box. Its main shelter and breeding refuge is a tunnel and chamber excavated in a river bank, while adults commonly rest on concealed or overhanging branches beside water.

The tunnel ends in a widened chamber where the eggs are laid on bare earth. Tunnels may be solitary or occur in loose colonies, with pairs defending nest territories.

Low-lying tunnels are vulnerable to flooding. Artificial changes in water level can drown nests, while bank disturbance can collapse or block access to the chamber.

Known tunnel length in Tasmania: 20 to 40 cm

Nest chamber substrate: Bare earth

• Look for small tunnel entrances in natural earth banks close to the waterline or immediately above it.
• Keep spoil, sediment, temporary access tracks and plant equipment away from likely tunnel entrances and the face of the bank.
• Maintain natural bank stability and avoid abrupt drawdown or inundation during works.

Sheltering habitat: Perches and cover

Adults use branches overhanging the water as hunting and resting perches. Shady, overhanging vegetation provides cover along the river margin and supports the species' plunge-diving hunting method.

No specific roost dimensions or separate night-roost structures are provided in the supplied documents.

• Retain mature and low overhanging riparian branches where safe to do so.
• Avoid clearing narrow strips of streamside vegetation that remove both cover and fishing perches.

Threats: Clearing and fragmentation

The main documented threat is loss and disturbance of riverside habitat. Project impacts are most likely where clearing, bank works, altered flows or reduced water quality affect shaded river margins and nest banks.

Historical and continuing modification of riparian vegetation has been associated with localised loss of the species from some river sections. Clearing to the bank removes shade, perches, cover and potential nesting banks, and can fragment resident river territories.

Bridge construction, river cruises, recreational boating, road or vehicle activity, and other bank disturbance are identified as possible local threats.

• Map riparian vegetation, suitable earth banks, overhanging perches and known records before clearing or access design.
• Keep construction access, laydown areas and temporary tracks outside intact river margins where practicable.
• Use targeted fauna inspections of river banks before excavation, trimming or bank stabilisation.

Threats: Hydrology and water quality

Dams and fluctuating water levels may flood tunnels drilled low in stream banks. Artificial flooding can destroy nests, while acid mine drainage, turbidity and changes to water quality may reduce habitat quality or prey availability.

Small weirs may locally improve feeding opportunities by concentrating fish, but the overall effect of barriers and impoundments on the species is unknown.

• Prevent sediment release and turbidity during in-stream and bank works.
• Assess whether temporary or permanent water-level changes could inundate nest banks.
• Maintain fish passage, shallow feeding areas and natural bank conditions where project design allows.

Threats: Other documented pressures

Whitebait fishing overlaps with the species' historical and current distribution, but the effect of whitebait fishing on the Tasmanian population is uncertain. The listing statement notes little evidence that fluctuations in whitebait numbers explain sightings because birds are also recorded at natural and artificial fish concentrations.

Willow removal may remove slow-water backwaters, fish concentrations and perching sites. European Carp may compete for food resources. Collisions with windows and vehicles are also identified as possible threats.

Fire, predators and disease: The supplied documents do not identify fire, predation or disease as established major threats for this species.

• Check whether willow removal will remove established perches or shallow backwaters used by fish and kingfishers, and stage replacement habitat where appropriate.
• Manage vehicle speeds and work lighting near occupied river sections, particularly where repeated low flights are recorded.
• Do not assume that all riparian rehabilitation is beneficial if it removes nest banks, perches or feeding backwaters.

Survey methodology: 1. Assess watercourse habitat

There are no formal survey guidelines for the Tasmanian Azure Kingfisher. Surveys should focus on vegetated river margins, especially shady and overhanging habitat along major rivers and streams, and should use repeated direct observations during the spring to summer breeding period.

Map rivers, streams, lakes, swamps, dams, estuaries and other waterbodies within and downstream of the project area.

Record shady or overhanging riparian vegetation, exposed or vegetated earth banks, potential nest banks, perches and nearby slow-moving water.

Inspect the full project reach where practicable, including upstream and downstream areas that could be affected by bank disturbance, changed flows, turbidity or loss of riparian cover.

Survey methodology: 2. Targeted visual observations

Undertake repeated observations from bridges, river walks, riverbanks, kayaks, rafts or other suitable vantage points where these can be used without disturbing the bank or vegetation.

Watch perches overhanging the water for shallow plunge dives, darting flight over the water and the bird's distinctive deep blue to azure plumage, orange breast and red feet.

Give added attention to the spring to summer breeding period, when more sightings have been reported, while recognising that increased detection may partly reflect observer activity.

Recommended timing: Spring to summer, with breeding generally from September to February in Tasmania

Formal survey guideline: None available

Known observation approaches: Kayakers, rafters, river cruises, bridges, river walks and workers at sites such as weirs

• Record the date, time, observers, weather, water conditions, vantage point, search duration, river reach surveyed and all sighting locations.
• Record birds seen, heard or behaving territorially, including the perch, flight direction, dive location and whether the bird carried prey.

Survey methodology: 3. Check breeding banks without disturbance

Inspect suitable earth banks beside or very close to water for narrow nest-tunnel entrances, particularly near the top of the bank.

Do not enter, probe, block, excavate or otherwise disturb a suspected tunnel or nest bank.

Treat a suspected nest bank as occupied until an appropriately qualified ecologist has assessed it and the project environmental officer has confirmed the required controls.

Nest location: A tunnel in an earth bank beside or very close to water

Tunnel length: About 20 to 40 cm in the Tasmanian listing statement

Typical clutch: 4 to 6 glossy white eggs

Breeding period: September to February in Tasmania

• Record the bank location, height and condition, nearby vegetation, access tracks, machinery requirements and any evidence of recent excavation or flooding.
• Schedule additional observations where a bird is repeatedly seen near a bank, because pairs defend nest territories and may use the same nesting hole in successive years.

Survey methodology: Minimum effort and reporting

• Do not describe a survey as compliant with a prescribed Azure Kingfisher effort standard, because the Tasmanian listing statement identifies no formal survey guidelines.
• Base the survey effort on the length and condition of affected watercourse, the extent of riparian vegetation proposed for clearing, the presence of suitable banks and the duration of works, and document the reasons for the selected effort.
• Use experienced observers familiar with the species' plunge-diving behaviour and distinctive appearance, and record both detections and suitable habitat where no bird is detected.
• Submit verified records and negative survey information, where accepted, to the relevant state wildlife database and provide records to the project environmental officer and approval authority.
• Report any suspected nest, breeding pair, injured bird or unexpected concentration of birds before works continue in that area.

Before habitat disturbance: Avoid and minimise habitat loss

Plan the project around the Azure Kingfisher's dependence on intact, shady riparian vegetation, clear water and earth banks for nesting. The Tasmanian subspecies is endangered under Tasmanian and national legislation, and the documents identify fewer than 250 mature individuals as a current Tasmanian estimate, although other estimates have been less precise.

• Avoid clearing riparian vegetation along occupied or potentially occupied river margins wherever practicable.
• Retain shady and overhanging vegetation, mature perches, natural earth banks, slow-water areas and connected riparian cover.
• Keep construction compounds, access tracks, spoil, stockpiles and lighting away from watercourses and potential nest banks.
• Maintain movement and foraging continuity along the river margin rather than creating isolated cleared sections.
• Do not assume that a cleared bank is unsuitable, because the species can nest in a narrow tunnel in an earth bank and may use small river territories in Tasmania.

Before habitat disturbance: Confirm approvals and timing

Tasmanian status: Endangered under the Threatened Species Protection Act 1995

National status: Endangered under the EPBC Act

Tasmanian population information: Thought to number fewer than 250 mature individuals in the Tasmanian listing statement

• Check whether the affected population is the Tasmanian Azure Kingfisher, Ceyx azureus subsp. diemenensis, and confirm all applicable EPBC Act and state threatened species requirements before works begin.
• Obtain any permits required to take, injure, catch, disturb or interfere with the species or its habitat, including permits that may apply on reserved land.
• Refer the action under the EPBC Act where the project may have a significant impact on the nationally listed entity, and obtain project-specific advice from the relevant regulator.
• Plan bank, vegetation and in-stream works outside the September to February breeding period where practicable.
• Stage works so that retained riparian cover, nest banks and access to feeding water remain available while each work area is completed.

Before habitat disturbance: Prepare the site

• Complete a pre-clearance survey of all affected watercourses, riparian vegetation and earth banks before machinery enters the work area.
• Mark retained riparian vegetation, potential nest banks, known perches, occupied locations and no-go areas on plans and on the ground.
• Install exclusion fencing where it can protect retained vegetation and banks without restricting the bird's access to water or creating a collision risk.
• Brief the fauna spotter catcher, supervisors and machine operators on the species' appearance, behaviour, likely habitat and stop-work procedure.
• Confirm the wildlife carer, veterinarian, regulator and project contact details before clearing starts.

During habitat disturbance: Daily work controls

Use a live fauna management process throughout clearing and construction. The spotter catcher should control the immediate work area, while the supervisor retains responsibility for stopping machinery and implementing the environmental controls.

• Inspect exclusion fencing, retained vegetation, nest banks and watercourse controls before work starts each day.
• Keep machinery, workers, spoil and refuelling areas out of retained riparian vegetation and away from suspected nest banks.
• Prevent sediment, concrete, fuel, chemicals and other pollutants from entering the water, because the species feeds by plunging into water for fish, crayfish and aquatic insects.
• Maintain clear water and natural bank stability as far as practicable, and control dust, noise, vibration and lighting near occupied habitat.
• Stop work in the relevant area if a bird is struck, injured, trapped, found nesting, or repeatedly defending a bank or riparian reach.

During habitat disturbance: Spotter catcher and machinery

• The fauna spotter catcher should inspect the next work area immediately before disturbance and remain able to see the active clearing or construction face.
• The machine operator should work only on the spotter catcher's direction and should stop immediately when the spotter catcher calls a halt.
• Use staged clearing from the disturbed edge towards retained habitat where this does not drive the bird towards machinery, water hazards or roads.
• Do not chase, net or handle a free-flying Azure Kingfisher merely to move it from a work area.
• If a bird is found, keep people and machinery back, reduce activity and contact the project ecologist or environmental officer for direction.

During habitat disturbance: Animal and habitat incidents

• Only a person authorised under the applicable permit and project fauna management plan should handle the bird.
• If handling is authorised, keep handling brief, avoid pressure on the chest, prevent overheating and release the bird into nearby retained riparian habitat only when the ecologist considers that safe and lawful.
• Take an injured or stunned bird to a veterinarian or licensed wildlife carer as soon as practicable, using the approved wildlife rescue procedure.
• Do not excavate, block, fill or enter a suspected nest tunnel, and do not remove a bank containing a suspected nest until the ecologist and regulator have cleared the action.
• Record the location, time, condition, action taken, handler, destination and outcome for every sighting, incident, handling event and stop-work event.

After habitat disturbance: Inspect and monitor

Post-work checks should confirm that retained river margins, nest banks, water quality and access to feeding habitat remain functional. Monitoring effort should reflect the affected reach and any conditions imposed by approvals.

• Complete a post-clearance inspection of the full work area, retained riparian vegetation, earth banks, watercourse and access routes before demobilisation.
• Check for damaged or flooded nest banks, blocked tunnels, unstable banks, sediment deposits, turbid water, removed perches and breaks in riparian cover.
• Repeat targeted observations during the spring to summer breeding period at occupied or potentially occupied reaches, using the same vantage points and recording method used before works.
• Investigate any loss of sightings, repeated disturbance or changed water conditions with the project ecologist rather than assuming that the species has moved away.

After habitat disturbance: Close out controls and approvals

• Keep exclusion fencing, sediment controls, bank protection and access restrictions in place until the environmental officer confirms that they are no longer needed.
• Maintain any project-specific riparian buffer, nest-bank exclusion zone, water-quality condition or monitoring requirement for the full period stated in the approval or fauna management plan.
• Report threatened species records, injuries, mortalities, nest disturbance, permit breaches and stop-work events to the relevant regulator within the required timeframe.
• Provide survey, incident, rehabilitation and monitoring records to the relevant state wildlife database and approval authority where required.
• Assess whether an offset, compensatory action or additional habitat protection is required under the EPBC Act, state approval or permit.

Rehabilitation actions: Restore riparian habitat

Rehabilitation should restore a shaded, connected river margin with stable earth banks and clean water. It should address the bird's feeding, perching and bank-nesting requirements rather than only replacing the cleared plant cover.

• Replant cleared banks and water margins with locally appropriate native riparian plants that will provide shade, overhanging cover and perches as they mature.
• Reconnect separated sections of riparian vegetation along the affected reach and remove unnecessary access tracks, compacted areas and stockpiles.
• Stabilise banks using methods that retain natural earth faces or suitable natural bank structure for burrow construction, while avoiding hard engineering that removes nesting opportunities.
• Reinstate natural drainage and manage sediment so the water remains suitable for fish, freshwater crayfish and aquatic insects.
• Do not remove willows or other in-stream cover without assessing local effects on fish concentrations and perching opportunities, because the Tasmanian listing statement records possible local benefits as well as potential management concerns.

Rehabilitation actions: Protect restored habitat

• Control weeds and prevent livestock trampling around waterholes, banks and revegetated riparian areas.
• Manage predators, domestic animals and human access where they threaten nesting banks or reduce the bird's ability to forage and breed.
• Do not install nest boxes as a substitute for retaining suitable earth banks unless an approved ecologist identifies a specific need and an appropriate design.
• Use fire planning that protects riparian vegetation, nest banks and overhanging cover, and prevent slash, ash and sediment from entering the watercourse after fire or fuel reduction works.

Rehabilitation actions: Measure rehabilitation success

Breeding season for monitoring: September to February in Tasmania

Key success indicators: Stable earth banks, shady overhanging riparian vegetation, clean feeding water, connected cover and Azure Kingfisher use

• Inspect planted areas and restored banks after establishment and following major floods, checking survival, shade development, bank stability, water clarity, weed cover and livestock exclusion.
• Monitor the restored reach during spring to summer for Azure Kingfisher sightings, plunge-diving, territorial behaviour and use of retained or restored banks.
• Compare monitoring results with the pre-work habitat map and baseline observations, and repair failed planting, eroding banks, broken fencing or sediment controls.
• Continue monitoring for the period required by approvals, and extend monitoring if the restored reach is not providing stable riparian cover, feeding water and suitable nesting banks.

Sources

• Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act), Australian Government DCCEEW: https://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/communities/pubs/77-conservation-advice.pdf
• H2 View, Tasmanian Government: https://nre.tas.gov.au/Documents/Tasmanian-Azure-Kingfisher-listing-statement.pdf
• Azure Kingfisher (Ceyx azureus) identification - Birda, app.birda.org: https://app.birda.org/species-guide/10624/Azure_Kingfisher
• Azure Kingfisher - The Australian Museum, Australian Museum: https://australian.museum/learn/animals/birds/azure-kingfisher/