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Australian Bustard (Ardeotis australis)

The Australian Bustard is a very large, ground-dwelling bird of dry plains, tussock and hummock grasslands, low shrublands and open woodland across inland and northern Australia. It may occur on or near development sites, including cleared ground, pastoral areas, mine rehabilitation, roads, airfields and golf courses, but clearing, disturbance, introduced predators and loss of suitable grassland can reduce its use of an area.

Conservation status

New South Wales, Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016: Endangered.

Victoria, Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988: Critically endangered.

South Australia, National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972: Vulnerable.

Northern Territory, Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1976: Near threatened.

Breeding season

Timing varies with rainfall, food and region. The breeding period is the clearest seasonal window for project controls, while movements can occur at any time because the species is dispersive and nomadic.

Seasonal timing is a general guide. Rainfall and food conditions can alter movements and breeding timing between regions.

  • Breeding and display: Breeding season is generally August to November. Males display from separated arenas or territories and give deep roaring calls.
  • Laying and incubation: In South Australia, eggs are laid from September to November. The female incubates 1 to 2 eggs, rarely 3, for about 24 days.
  • Dependent young: The female raises the young after hatching. The supplied documents do not give the length of dependence, so the period is not assigned more precisely.
  • Movement and feeding concentrations: Movements are irregular and can occur throughout the year in response to rainfall, food, mice and recently burnt areas. The species is dispersive and nomadic in parts of its range.
  • Highest clearing risk: August to November is the highest risk period because display, laying, incubation and early care of ground-dependent young may occur. Check for nests and dependent young before clearing or ground disturbance.

Identification

The Australian Bustard is unmistakable when seen well because of its size, erect posture and long legs. It is usually encountered walking in open country, although it is a strong flier and can move between suitable areas.

This is a very large, heavy-bodied bird that can stand up to 1 metre tall. It has an erect posture, long legs, a prominent black cap, and a white head, neck and breast marked with dark grey specks.

The upper wings and tail are brown with fine dark patterning. A bold black and white patch is visible on the lower edge of the wing, particularly when the bird is moving or flying.

Male wingspan: Up to 2.3 metres

Male weight: 5 to 10 kilograms

Female weight: 2 to 3 kilograms

Identification: Sex differences

Males are much larger than females and may be up to three times heavier. The male has a black crown and black breastband, while the female has a brown crown and lacks the breastband.

During display, the male inflates a white-feathered breast sac, swings it from side to side, raises the tail and gives a deep, loud call.

Identification: Field signs and similar species

The species is most likely to be detected by direct observation, flushed flight, tracks or a deep booming call during the breeding season. The supplied sources do not provide measurements for tracks or scats, or identify a specific similar species for field comparison.

A nest is a shallow hollow on the ground. It may be in open country on a low sandy ridge or stony rise, often near the boundary between grassland and protective shrubland. The female relies on camouflage and a clear view of approaching threats.

  • Look for a very large bird walking with its head and neck held erect.
  • Check flushed birds for the bold black and white wing marking.
  • Listen for the male's deep, booming or roaring display call, especially from August to November.
  • Treat shallow ground hollows in suitable open habitat as potential nests during the breeding season.

Distribution: National range

The Australian Bustard formerly had a broader distribution in southern and south-eastern Australia but is now scarce or absent from much of that area. It remains widespread in inland and northern Australia, with irregular movements between suitable areas.

The species occurs across inland Australia and northern Australia, and extends into southern New Guinea. In New South Wales, current records are concentrated in the north-west, with fewer records on the lower western and central western plains. Occasional vagrants reach the western slopes and Riverine plain.

The supplied New South Wales profile records the species in or predicts it in the Brigalow Belt South, Broken Hill Complex, Channel Country, Cobar Peneplain, Darling Riverine Plains, Mulga Lands, Murray Darling Depression, Riverina and Simpson Strzelecki Dunefields. It also records known occurrences in South Australia and Queensland.

  • New South Wales: mainly the north-west, with records extending through inland plains and occasional vagrants farther east.
  • South Australia: recorded in the Lofty Block, adjoining bioregions and Iron-grass Natural Temperate Grassland, including Mokota Conservation Park.
  • Northern Territory: widespread but generally scarce, with records from open country and rehabilitated mine areas in Arnhem Land.
  • Victoria: the supplied material identifies the species as present in the state but does not provide a detailed Victorian distribution.
  • Queensland: the supplied New South Wales profile records known occurrence in Queensland but does not give further state-level detail.

Distribution: Strongholds and subpopulations

Breeding in New South Wales now occurs only in the north-west region. In South Australia, bustards have been recorded in grassy habitats of the Lofty Block and adjoining bioregions, including Iron-grass Natural Temperate Grassland at Mokota Conservation Park.

The species has declined on a large scale in south-eastern Australia and is now largely found in northern Australia and southern New Guinea. It may gather temporarily where rainfall, mice, insects or recently burnt vegetation provide concentrated food.

Population size: No population estimate is provided in the supplied documents.

Population trend: Large-scale decline is reported for south-eastern Australia; no national population trend estimate is provided.

NSW breeding distribution: Breeding now occurs only in the north-west region of NSW.

Habitat: Main habitat types

Australian Bustards use open, dry country with enough grass, low vegetation and food resources for walking and foraging. They favour native tussock grasslands but also use a range of open woodland, shrubland and modified habitats.

The main habitats are tussock and hummock grasslands, dry plains, low shrublands and low open grassy woodlands. The species also occurs in open woodland dominated by mulga, mallee or heath, and in arid scrubland with saltbush and bluebush.

In South Australia, it has been recorded in Iron-grass Natural Temperate Grassland. In northern Australia, it has used open grassland, low shrubland, savanna woodland, recently cleared ground and young mine rehabilitation.

  • Native tussock grassland, which is preferred over hummock grassland.
  • Hummock grassland and spinifex country.
  • Low shrubland and open grassy woodland.
  • Dry plains, arid scrubland, saltbush and bluebush communities.
  • Some pastoral, cropping, golf course, airfield and mine rehabilitation areas.

Habitat: Structure and site conditions

Suitable sites provide open ground for walking and visibility, with nearby tussock, long grass, low shrubs or trees for cover. Breeding sites are associated with low sandy ridges or stony rises at the boundary between grassland and protective shrubland.

The supplied documents describe the species as mainly inland, arid and semi-arid, or tropical and subtropical in the north. They do not provide an elevation limit.

Elevation limit: Not stated in the supplied documents.

Climate setting: Dry plains, arid and semi-arid country, and tropical northern open country are documented habitat settings.

  • Retain native tussock and hummock grassland where practicable.
  • Retain ecotones between open grassland and low shrubland, especially on sandy ridges and stony rises.
  • Inspect open ground, grassland margins and recently disturbed areas before clearing or earthworks.
  • Do not assume that modified ground is unused habitat, because bustards have been recorded on farms, golf courses, airfields and mine rehabilitation.

Foraging habitat: Diet

The Australian Bustard is an opportunistic omnivore that walks through open vegetation while searching for both animal and plant food. Food availability can drive irregular movements and temporary concentrations of birds.

Food includes insects, especially crickets and grasshoppers, as well as young birds, lizards, mice, frogs, leaves, buds, seeds and fruit.

In arid areas, bustards are primarily nomadic and track rainfall and food sources opportunistically. Groups may move to recently burnt areas to eat animals flushed out or killed by fire.

  • Retain native grassland and low vegetation that support insects and other prey.
  • Check recently burnt areas, mouse outbreaks and productive grassland for temporary concentrations of birds.
  • Avoid disturbing feeding birds where practical, particularly in open areas beside active work zones.

Foraging habitat: Foraging range and behaviour

The species is dispersive and makes irregular widespread movements over long distances. Movements are thought to respond to habitat and climatic conditions, rather than following a fixed migration route.

Bustards forage in grassland, open woodland, low shrubland and some modified open habitats. The supplied documents do not provide a typical home-range size or daily foraging distance.

Home range: No home-range measurement is provided in the supplied documents.

Movement trigger: Rainfall, food availability, mice and recently burnt areas are documented movement or concentration triggers.

Breeding habitat: Breeding biology

Breeding occurs on the ground in open country, with the female selecting a site that provides camouflage and a clear view of approaching threats. Males display from separated arenas or territories, although the arrangement can differ in drier areas.

The species generally breeds once a year. It uses a dispersed lek system in which males display from separated arenas or territories and females choose a mate. In drier arid areas, some birds may use a more solitary or monogamous system.

The female incubates the eggs and raises the young. The male does not take part in raising the chicks after mating.

Breeding season: August to November; egg laying is reported from September to November in arid South Australia.

Clutch size: Usually 1 to 2 eggs, rarely 3.

Incubation: About 24 days.

Age at maturity: Not stated in the supplied documents.

Lifespan: Not stated in the supplied documents.

Parental care: The female incubates and cares for the young; the male provides no care after mating.

Breeding habitat: Nest and display habitat

The nest is a hollow directly on the ground. Suitable nest sites include low sandy ridges or stony rises in an ecotone between grassland and protective shrubland cover.

Females select sites where surrounding vegetation provides camouflage but visibility remains good enough to detect approaching threats. Males may display on open ground, including recently cleared or young rehabilitated areas, with display arenas separated by 0.75 to 1.5 kilometres at one Northern Territory mine site.

  • Search ground hollows and open grassland margins before clearing during August to November.
  • Inspect sandy ridges, stony rises and shrubland edges for nests.
  • Include open display areas and nearby grassland or woodland in pre-clearance checks.
  • Use a fauna spotter catcher where a nest, female showing nesting behaviour, dependent young or a displaying male is detected.

Sheltering habitat: Roosting and cover

Bustards shelter and roost on the ground rather than in hollows or burrows. They use vegetation and trees for concealment, and may shelter close to open feeding areas.

The species roosts on the ground among shrubs and long grass or under trees. Low shrubland, tussock grass and open woodland can therefore provide shelter beside feeding areas.

The supplied documents do not provide a required cover height, roost diameter, den size or refuge distance.

Dens or burrows: None are documented for this species.

Tree hollows: Not used for nesting according to the supplied documents; roosting under trees is documented.

Known refuge size: Not stated in the supplied documents.

  • Retain patches of long grass, tussock and low shrub cover near open foraging areas.
  • Inspect ground beneath trees, within shrubs and through long grass before machinery enters.
  • Avoid isolating small cover patches from adjoining grassland where practical.

Sheltering habitat: Disturbance response

When disturbed, Australian Bustards may walk away slowly with the head held high, or fly strongly to another area. They can occur on recently cleared ground and mine rehabilitation, so absence of dense native vegetation does not rule out use of a work area.

  • Allow a clear movement route away from a detected bird rather than driving or walking directly towards it.
  • Check surrounding grassland, shrubland and woodland after a bird leaves, because a nest or roost may be nearby.
  • Record the direction of flight and the habitat used after disturbance.

Threats: Clearing and habitat change

The main risks are loss and degradation of open grassy habitat, disturbance or destruction of ground nests, introduced predators and illegal hunting. Risks can increase where clearing removes grassland and shrubland edges or where infrastructure fragments access to feeding and roosting areas.

Clearing, habitat alteration and fragmentation of semi-arid open grassy woodland are documented threats. Overgrazing by stock and rabbits can alter tussock grasslands and reduce habitat quality.

Ground nests can be destroyed by vegetation removal, grading, earthworks, vehicles or stock during the breeding season. Clearing can also remove open display sites, nearby protective shrubland and ground cover used for roosting.

  • Complete pre-clearance checks for ground nests, displaying males and birds using grassland, shrubland and open woodland.
  • Retain connected areas of tussock grassland, low shrubland and open woodland where practicable.
  • Reduce heavy stocking in semi-arid grassland and shrubland habitat.
  • Control rabbits and stock impacts without creating secondary poisoning risks for bustards.

Threats: Predators, poisoning and hunting

Foxes and cats prey on bustards and are identified threats. Secondary poisoning from rabbit baiting can also affect the species. Past hunting reduced populations, and illegal hunting continues.

Disturbance near nests can cause breeding failure. Feeding or taming wild bustards can increase their vulnerability to illegal hunters and alter their response to people.

  • Manage foxes and feral cats where approved, while ensuring control methods do not harm native fauna.
  • Plan rabbit baiting to minimise secondary poisoning and follow approved fauna protection measures.
  • Prevent workers and the public from feeding, pursuing or approaching bustards.
  • Report suspected illegal hunting to the relevant state authority.

Threats: Fire, roads and other project risks

Bustards may be attracted to recently burnt areas because fire exposes or kills food, but the supplied documents do not establish a preferred fire frequency or fire season. Burning can therefore create short-term feeding opportunities while also removing cover and exposing nests or young.

Roads and construction areas can increase disturbance, vehicle collision risk and access for hunters, although direct road mortality is not specifically documented in the supplied sources. No disease or hydrology change is identified in the supplied documents as a species-specific threat.

  • Inspect recently burnt areas and fire edges for feeding or congregating bustards before works begin.
  • Use vehicle controls in open grassland and around known sightings, nests or display areas.
  • Keep work areas, lighting and noise away from detected nests and display sites where practicable.
  • Record and report any disease signs or road deaths because species-specific disease information is not provided in the supplied documents.

Survey methodology: 1. Daytime habitat and transect searches

Australian Bustards are large, ground-dwelling birds that use tussock and hummock grasslands, low shrublands, open grassy woodlands and some modified open areas. They are mobile and can be difficult to detect, so surveys should combine systematic daytime searches with searches for birds using open ground, grass cover and recently burnt areas.

Walk or drive systematic transects through all suitable grassland, open woodland, shrubland and recently burnt areas within the project footprint and adjoining retained habitat.

Search during daylight for birds, tracks, feathers, droppings, feeding signs and suitable ground nests. Record the location, habitat structure, flock size, behaviour and direction of movement for every observation.

Give particular attention to tussock grasslands, open ground near shrub cover, low sandy ridges, stony rises, grassland edges and areas with abundant insects, mice or other food.

Survey all connected suitable habitat that may be used for movement, not only the area proposed for clearing.

Known habitat use: Tussock and hummock grasslands, low shrublands, low open grassy woodlands, dry plains and open woodland.

Movement behaviour: Dispersive, with irregular long-distance movements in response to habitat and climatic conditions.

Survey methodology: 2. Breeding-season nest and display searches

Complete targeted searches during the breeding period, when females may lay eggs directly on the ground and males may use open display areas.

Search open ground on low sandy ridges or stony rises, especially at ecotones between grassland and protective shrubland cover. Approach slowly and avoid walking through suspected nest areas.

Look for males displaying in open areas and record display locations, repeated use of a site, flight paths and any territorial behaviour. Do not approach a suspected nest closely enough to cause flushing.

Treat any suspected nest as a no-go area until the fauna spotter catcher and project ecologist have assessed it and the work plan has been amended.

Breeding period: August to November in the Victorian source, and September to November in the South Australian source.

Clutch and incubation: Usually one to two eggs, rarely three, laid in a ground hollow; incubation is about 24 days.

Survey methodology: 3. Early morning and late afternoon observation

Use quiet observation from fixed points at suitable open habitat edges during early morning and late afternoon, when birds may move between feeding, roosting and cover areas.

Scan open ground, long grass, shrub cover and woodland margins with binoculars or a spotting scope from a position that does not interrupt movement.

Record time, weather, visibility, observer position, duration, habitat, number of birds and behaviour, including feeding, roosting, walking, flight and display.

Repeat observations where access, season and project risk justify it, because the species is nomadic in arid areas and may be absent from suitable habitat during one visit.

Detection considerations: Bustards are large and conspicuous but may be sparsely distributed, mobile and absent from otherwise suitable habitat during a single visit.

Fire-associated movements: Birds may move towards recently burnt areas, where they feed on animals flushed out or killed by fire.

Survey methodology: 4. Minimum effort and reporting

  • Use a documented search design that covers every suitable habitat type and all proposed clearing areas, and state the dates, observers, weather, search duration, route or observation points and area searched.
  • Do not claim that a site is free of Australian Bustards solely because no birds were detected during one visit.
  • Schedule additional searches where suitable habitat is extensive, connected to known records, recently burnt, used for display, or likely to contain ground nests.
  • Record all sightings and suspected nests with accurate coordinates, photographs where this can be done without disturbance, habitat descriptions and behaviour notes.
  • Submit confirmed and reliable incidental records to the relevant state wildlife database or species-record system, and provide records to the project approval authority where required.
  • Check current state survey, handling and threatened-species requirements before fieldwork, because the species has different state conservation listings and is not listed under the EPBC Act in the supplied records.

Before habitat disturbance: Avoid and minimise habitat loss

Before clearing or construction, identify how the works could remove feeding, roosting, breeding or movement habitat. Avoid disturbance wherever practicable, particularly in open grassland and at grassland to shrubland edges used for nesting and display.

Retain connected areas of tussock and hummock grassland, low shrubland, open grassy woodland and other suitable open habitat.

Avoid clearing low sandy ridges, stony rises, open display areas, roosting cover and grassland edges adjoining protective shrubland.

Keep retained habitat connected across the work area so mobile birds can move between feeding areas, cover, breeding areas and recently burnt areas.

Do not assume that modified areas have no value, because Australian Bustards have been recorded in pastoral and cropping country, golf courses, airfields and other open modified habitats.

Before habitat disturbance: Approvals and project planning

Check the conservation status in every state or territory affected by the project and obtain any required wildlife, threatened-species, clearing or handling approvals before work starts.

The supplied records identify the species as Endangered in New South Wales, Critically Endangered in Victoria, Vulnerable in South Australia and Near Threatened in the Northern Territory.

The species is not listed under the EPBC Act in the supplied records, but assess whether other nationally listed species or ecological communities could be affected by the project.

Prepare a fauna management plan that defines no-go areas, survey timing, daily pre-start checks, stop-work triggers, handling authority, relocation arrangements, injury response and reporting responsibilities.

Stage clearing so that retained habitat remains available while fauna is being moved away from the work area, and avoid scheduling high-risk clearing during the local breeding period where practicable.

Before habitat disturbance: Pre-clearance site preparation

Complete a pre-clearance inspection immediately before works, including a search for birds, ground nests, display areas, tracks, feeding signs and roosting cover.

Mark retained habitat, no-go areas, suspected nests, movement routes and any approved access corridors on plans and on the ground.

Install exclusion fencing or other visible controls where they can keep machinery and people out of retained habitat or a suspected nest area without blocking essential bird movements.

Brief all operators and supervisors on the species identification, its ground-nesting behaviour, the work limits, stop-work triggers and the fauna spotter catcher's authority.

During habitat disturbance: Daily controls and machinery coordination

Australian Bustards can walk away from approaching machinery but may also remain on open ground, in grass cover or near a nest. The fauna spotter catcher must have clear authority to stop work and must coordinate each clearing movement with machinery operators.

Complete a fauna pre-start inspection each day before machinery enters suitable habitat, and repeat it after breaks, overnight stoppages, fire, heavy rain or a change in the work area.

Use a fauna spotter catcher to inspect the active work zone, access tracks, retained habitat edges and likely open ground before plant moves.

Keep machinery speeds low enough for the spotter catcher to maintain visual coverage, and keep operators in direct radio or visual contact with the spotter catcher.

Clear in a planned direction towards retained open habitat where this is compatible with the approved method, while avoiding driving birds towards roads, fences, water hazards or other work fronts.

Stop machinery immediately when the spotter catcher identifies a bird, suspected nest, injured animal or unsafe escape route.

During habitat disturbance: If a bustard is found

Stop work and give the bird time to walk or fly away without pursuit, crowding, vehicle movement or unnecessary handling.

Keep people, dogs and machinery away from the bird and maintain the project-approved exclusion area until the bird has left or the fauna spotter catcher has assessed the situation.

Do not handle an alert, mobile bird unless handling is authorised, necessary for welfare or required by the approved fauna management plan.

Only an appropriately authorised and experienced person should capture, restrain, transport or relocate the bird, and any relocation should be to nearby suitable retained habitat selected with the project ecologist and relevant authority.

If the bird is injured, contain it only where safe and authorised, place it with an approved wildlife carer or veterinarian as soon as possible, and record the incident and destination.

Do not approach, flush or relocate a suspected nest without ecological assessment and approval of the revised work controls.

During habitat disturbance: Habitat features and stop-work triggers

Treat ground hollows, open nest sites, grass cover, shrub cover, low ridges, stony rises and grassland to shrubland edges as potential breeding or refuge features.

Do not clear, grade, burn or stockpile material within a suspected nest area until the fauna spotter catcher and project ecologist have confirmed the control measures.

Keep stockpiles, spoil, lighting, noise and vehicle movements away from retained habitat and any identified display, feeding, roosting or nesting area.

Stop work for any confirmed or suspected nest, repeated display activity, a bird trapped within the work area, an injured bird, or a bird repeatedly attempting to cross the active work zone.

Reassess the method if works sever access between retained grassland, shrub cover or open woodland used by the species.

During habitat disturbance: Records and incident reporting

Record each daily inspection, sighting, nest assessment, stop-work event, handling event, relocation, injury and release outcome.

For each observation, record the date, time, coordinates, habitat, number of birds, behaviour, work activity, response and person responsible.

Notify the project environmental officer and the relevant wildlife authority of any injury, death, nest disturbance, unauthorised handling or breach of an approval condition.

Submit reliable project records to the relevant state wildlife database after verification.

After habitat disturbance: Post-clearance inspection

Post-clearance controls should confirm that no bird or nest remains in the work area, identify any continuing use of retained habitat and keep movement and habitat controls in place for the duration of the project.

Inspect the cleared area, access routes, retained habitat edges and exclusion fencing after each clearing stage and before the next work stage begins.

Search for birds, nests, feathers, carcasses, tracks, feeding signs and evidence that birds are attempting to return to the work area.

Remove or correct hazards such as open trenches, unsafe fencing, loose wire, waste, entangling materials and access routes that could trap or injure a ground-dwelling bird.

Keep suspected nests and any occupied retained habitat under observation until the project ecologist confirms that the risk has ended.

After habitat disturbance: Monitoring and adaptive controls

Monitor retained tussock and hummock grassland, shrubland, open woodland, display areas and movement routes during construction and rehabilitation.

Repeat targeted observations during the local breeding period and after fire or other events that may attract birds to the site.

Increase exclusion areas, reduce activity or change work timing if birds repeatedly use the site, display, nest, roost or attempt to cross active work areas.

Maintain fauna fencing, signage, access controls and approved buffers until the environmental officer confirms that they are no longer needed.

After habitat disturbance: Reporting, approvals and offsets

Complete the project's fauna and threatened-species report with survey effort, records, incidents, actions taken, outcomes and any departures from the approved method.

Provide required records and incident reports to the relevant state authority and approval holder, and update the state wildlife database with verified observations.

Implement any approved offset or compensatory habitat measure where residual impacts cannot be avoided, and report its location, habitat type, management actions and monitoring results.

Use the project approval and current state requirements to determine whether additional ecological assessment is required for the listed status applying in that jurisdiction.

Rehabilitation actions: Restore suitable structure

Rehabilitation should recreate open habitat with suitable feeding, breeding, roosting and movement conditions. The target is not simply vegetation cover, because Australian Bustards use a mixture of open ground, grass, low shrub cover and open woodland.

Re-establish locally appropriate tussock and hummock grassland, dry plain vegetation, low shrubland and open grassy woodland according to the site's original vegetation and approved rehabilitation plan.

Use locally appropriate native grasses, shrubs and woodland species identified by the regional restoration ecologist, rather than planting a dense, uniform cover that removes open ground.

Include open ground and grassland to shrubland edges, because the species nests on the ground and uses protective shrubland cover near breeding sites.

Retain or recreate low sandy rises, stony rises and other natural microhabitats where they are part of the approved site design.

Do not add hollow-bearing trees, nest boxes, wetlands, logs or rocks solely for this species unless they are required for other fauna, because the supplied documents identify open ground, grassland, shrubland and open woodland as the relevant habitat features.

Rehabilitation actions: Manage weeds, predators and fire

Control weeds and prevent rehabilitation areas from becoming unsuitable through heavy grazing, excessive woody thickening or loss of open grassland structure.

Manage foxes and feral cats in accordance with approved predator-control measures, while preventing impacts on native fauna.

Prevent overgrazing by stock and rabbits, and manage rabbit baiting to reduce the risk of secondary poisoning to bustards.

Develop fire management with the land manager and relevant authority, recognising that bustards may use recently burnt areas but that uncontrolled fire can remove nesting and roosting cover.

Avoid fire during active nesting or display periods where practicable, and retain unburnt refuge and feeding areas when planned burning is necessary.

Rehabilitation actions: Monitor success

Inspect rehabilitation for plant establishment, weed cover, grazing pressure, open ground, grass height and the persistence of connected movement routes.

Undertake repeat daytime searches and breeding-season observations for bustards, including checks for feeding, roosting, display and nesting use.

Record the area searched, observer effort, weather, habitat condition, sightings, behaviour and evidence of threats at each monitoring visit.

Set success measures in the rehabilitation plan for native grass and shrub establishment, retained open habitat, weed and predator control, absence of fauna hazards and verified use by the species where use is an approved objective.

Adapt planting, grazing, predator, weed and fire management if monitoring shows that the restored area is losing open grassland structure or is not connected to suitable retained habitat.

Useful monitoring focus: Presence, habitat condition, feeding and roosting use, display activity, nesting evidence, movement between retained areas, predator activity and grazing pressure.

Sources