Apostlebird (Struthidea cinerea)

Conservation status

Victoria, Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988: Vulnerable.

Breeding season

Apostlebirds are generally sedentary, with local movement to more open areas in autumn and winter. Breeding occurs from August to March, and the species may raise two broods in a season.

The documents do not identify peak breeding months within August to March, so all breeding-season months are marked as occurring rather than peak.

• Breeding: Breeding season runs from August to March. More than one female may lay in a nest, and two broods may be raised in a season.
• Young: Nestlings occur during the August to March breeding period. Incubation is about 18 days and the nestling period is about 18 days, with helpers feeding young.
• Local movement: The species is sedentary but makes some local movements to more open areas in autumn and winter. Seeds become more important during this period.
• Highest clearing risk: Clearing or disturbance is most likely to harm the species during the August to March breeding period, when nests, eggs and dependent young may be present.

Identification

Apostlebirds are usually detected as active groups moving and feeding on the ground. Their dark plumage, long black tail and distinctive group behaviour help separate them from other woodland birds.

The Apostlebird is a medium-sized bird with dark grey plumage, a short strong black bill, black legs, dark-brown wings with pale grey streaking and a long black tail. It is usually seen on the ground in groups rather than alone.

Adults of both sexes look alike. The species is commonly seen in groups of 3 to 20 birds, with groups of 6 to 10 typical and groups of up to 30 recorded.

Body length: 29 to 33 cm

Colour: Dark grey, brown and black

Bill and legs: Short black bill and black legs

Identification: Similar species and behaviour

The combination of dark grey body, long black tail, short black bill and brown wings with pale grey streaking is useful for identification. The Apostlebird is also strongly gregarious and commonly forages on the ground, often with White-winged Choughs.

Its rough, scratchy and discordant call is described as ‘ch-kew ch-kew’. A nasal ‘git-out’ call may be given when the birds are disturbed.

• Check for a group of several dark birds moving quickly across open ground rather than relying on a single bird.
• Do not identify a bird from group behaviour alone. Confirm the dark grey body, long black tail and short black bill.

Identification: Field signs

The most useful field signs are group calls, ground-foraging groups and large mud bowl nests in horizontal branches. Apostlebirds may also be seen dust-bathing on roadsides and can forage around farms, domestic poultry and campsites.

The nest is made from mud and plant fibres, reinforced and lined with grass. No information is provided in the documents on tracks, scats, pellets, roosts or other distinctive ground signs.

• Search horizontal branches 3 to 20 m above ground for large mud bowl nests, including nests in partly cleared or isolated trees.
• Listen for repeated ‘ch-kew ch-kew’ calls and inspect nearby open ground for a group of birds.
• Record dust-bathing areas and regular ground-foraging locations before clearing or heavy vehicle activity.

Distribution: National range

The Apostlebird occurs mainly in inland and eastern Australia, with an isolated Northern Territory population. The supplied documents do not provide bioregion boundaries, stronghold locations, population estimates or a national population trend.

The species is recorded in Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia, and has an isolated population in the Northern Territory.

The eastern range extends from lower Cape York Peninsula in Queensland to northern Victoria. In South Australia, the species occurs from Naracoorte to the Mount Lofty Ranges. The Northern Territory population is reported from the Elliott and Katherine areas.

States and territories recorded: NT, QLD, SA, VIC and NSW

Northern and southern extent described: Lower Cape York Peninsula to northern Victoria

South Australian range described: Naracoorte to the Mount Lofty Ranges

Isolated population: Elliott and Katherine areas, Northern Territory

Distribution: Bioregions and population information

The documents do not name the relevant Australian bioregions or identify known strongholds beyond the described regional occurrences. They also do not provide a population size, density, generation length or population trend.

For project assessment, map records and habitat separately in each project area because the Northern Territory occurrence is isolated from the main eastern and southern distribution.

Global IUCN status: Least Concern

Population size: Not provided in the supplied documents

Population trend: Not provided in the supplied documents

Bioregion information: Not provided in the supplied documents

• Use current state and territory occurrence databases and local records to check whether a project lies within the known range.
• Treat isolated records, group sightings and breeding records as important site information even where the species is locally common.

Habitat: Habitat types

Apostlebirds favour open, dry, partly treed habitats, particularly where woodland or forest occurs near water. They also use modified areas that retain trees and open ground.

The main habitats are open dry forests and woodlands near water. The species is also recorded in farmland with trees, along roadsides, in orchards, cemeteries, golf courses and around campsites.

The documents do not provide elevation limits, rainfall limits, named vegetation communities or a minimum patch size.

• Retain suitable woodland and forest trees near open ground and water where practicable.
• Assess treed farmland, roadside trees, orchards, cemeteries and golf courses as potential habitat rather than excluding them because they are modified.

Habitat: Structural features

The species uses a combination of trees for nesting and open ground for feeding. Horizontal branches suitable for mud bowl nests are important, with nests recorded 3 to 20 m above ground.

Groups may move to more open areas in autumn and winter, when seeds become more important in the diet.

• Inspect mature and established trees for horizontal branches before clearing or pruning.
• Include open areas, roadside margins and ground beneath retained trees in habitat checks because the species commonly forages on the ground.

Foraging habitat: Diet and feeding method

Apostlebirds forage mainly on the ground in groups. They use woodland edges, open dry woodland, farmland and other open areas with nearby trees.

The diet includes seeds and other vegetable matter, insects and other invertebrates, with occasional small vertebrates and eggs. In autumn and winter, seeds become more important as the birds move into more open country.

Foraging is usually on the ground in groups. Apostlebirds often forage with White-winged Choughs and may forage around domestic poultry, farms and campsites.

Primary food groups: Seeds, vegetable matter, insects and other invertebrates

Occasional food: Small vertebrates and eggs

Foraging location: Mainly on the ground

Seasonal diet shift: Seeds become more important in autumn and winter

• Search open ground beneath and beside retained trees for feeding groups before earthworks begin.
• Record seed-rich open areas and areas with leaf litter or other ground resources, while recognising that the documents do not identify particular food plant species.

Foraging habitat: Foraging area and disturbance

A fixed foraging range or home range is not provided. The species is sedentary overall, but makes local movements to more open areas in autumn and winter.

Ground disturbance, vehicle movements and loss of open feeding areas may affect groups using roadsides, farmland, orchards, golf courses and other modified habitats.

• Survey both the proposed clearing area and nearby open ground connected to retained woodland.
• Avoid assuming that a group seen away from trees is outside its habitat, particularly during autumn and winter.

Breeding habitat: Breeding biology

Apostlebirds are cooperative breeders that nest in groups. Breeding habitat requires suitable horizontal branches for mud nests, nearby foraging ground and enough vegetation and access for group members to feed nestlings.

A breeding unit consists of a dominant male, several females and immature birds that act as helpers. More than one female may lay in the same nest. Non-breeding family members help build the nest and feed nestlings, while adults generally incubate the eggs.

The nest is a large mud bowl placed on a horizontal branch 3 to 20 m above ground, reinforced and lined with grass. Two broods may be raised in one season. Although many eggs may be laid, usually only four nestlings survive to fledge, with survival possibly limited by nest size.

Breeding season: August to March

Nest type: Large mud bowl reinforced and lined with grass

Nest height: 3 to 20 m above ground

Incubation: About 18 days

Nestling period: About 18 days

Broods: Up to two broods may be raised in a season

Typical fledged young: Usually four nestlings survive to fledge

Age at maturity: Not provided in the supplied documents

Lifespan: Not provided in the supplied documents

• Inspect all suitable horizontal branches in trees proposed for removal, pruning or access works.
• Treat active mud nests and the surrounding group as a breeding site and obtain project-specific fauna management advice before disturbance.
• Retain access to nearby ground-foraging habitat for adults and helpers during nest construction and chick rearing.

Breeding habitat: Breeding site conditions

Breeding sites combine nest-bearing trees with nearby ground suitable for group foraging. All members of the group assist with nest construction and feeding, so removal of either nesting trees or adjacent feeding areas may affect breeding activity.

• Map nest trees, nearby open foraging areas and access routes used by the group.
• Check retained trees for mud nests before tree felling, branch removal or machinery access.

Sheltering habitat: Known shelter and resting features

The supplied documents do not describe dedicated roosts, tree hollows, burrows or refuges. They show that Apostlebirds use trees for nesting and open ground for feeding, and may remain around farms and campsites.

The documented structure used by Apostlebirds is the mud nest, which is placed on a horizontal branch 3 to 20 m above ground. The documents do not state whether the species uses hollows, cavities, burrows, dense ground cover or particular roost trees outside the breeding period.

The birds are sedentary, with some local movement to more open areas in autumn and winter. They may be seen dust-bathing on roadsides and can become tame around farms and campsites.

Documented nest structure: Mud bowl on a horizontal branch

Documented nest height: 3 to 20 m

Hollows, burrows and roosts: Not described in the supplied documents

• Inspect horizontal branches in retained trees for nests before clearing or pruning.
• Record regular group locations, dust-bathing areas and roadside activity as part of the site inspection.
• Do not infer that a tree is unimportant because no nest is visible, as non-breeding shelter and roost requirements are not described in the documents.

Threats: Clearing and fragmentation

The documented threats are habitat destruction and climate change. For projects, the main direct risks are removal of nest trees, loss of ground-foraging habitat and disturbance during the August to March breeding season.

Habitat destruction from land clearing, urban development, agriculture, mining and infrastructure is identified as a threat. Clearing can remove open dry woodland, forest, farmland trees, roadside habitat and nest-bearing branches.

Fragmentation may separate group members from feeding areas or remove the combination of trees and open ground used by the species. The documents do not provide a threshold for patch size or isolation.

• Search retained and proposed removal trees for mud nests before works.
• Assess open ground near woodland and isolated trees because the species commonly forages outside closed forest.
• Limit unnecessary removal of trees near water and retain connections between nesting trees and open feeding areas.

Threats: Construction, roads and fire

Apostlebirds use roadsides and may dust-bathe on roads, so road and infrastructure projects can overlap with regular activity areas. The documents do not quantify road mortality or describe a specific response to construction noise.

Fire is not identified separately in the supplied documents. Where fire, grading or earthworks alter dry woodland, open ground or seed resources, assess the resulting habitat change and disturbance for local groups.

• Check roadsides and work access routes for group activity before vehicle movements and earthworks.
• Use site controls to reduce unnecessary disturbance around active nests and regular feeding areas.
• Assess fire-related habitat loss and changes in ground food resources on a project-by-project basis.

Threats: Climate and other pressures

Climate change is identified as a threat because long-term changes in temperature, rainfall and extreme weather can alter habitat, food availability, breeding success and survival.

The supplied documents do not identify disease, introduced predators, hydrology change or a specific predator species as threats to Apostlebirds. Near-water habitat is preferred, so changes to water availability should be considered when assessing habitat alteration.

• Consider how changes to rainfall, water availability and seasonal seed supply may affect dry woodland and open feeding areas.
• Record disease, predation or unusual mortality if observed, but do not attribute these pressures to the species without supporting site evidence.

Survey methodology: 1. Diurnal habitat and activity searches

Apostlebirds are ground-foraging, group-living birds of open dry forests and woodlands, often near water. Surveys should focus on daylight activity, group presence, ground foraging areas and mud nests in trees.

Search open dry forest, woodland, farmland with retained trees, roadsides, orchards, cemeteries and golf course areas near water.

Conduct searches during daylight when Apostlebirds are active on the ground and easier to detect by sight and their rough, scratchy calls.

Record all groups, noting group size, location, direction of movement, foraging areas and any use of the project area.

Typical group size: Usually 3 to 20 birds, with groups of up to 30 reported.

Body length: 29 to 33 cm.

• Walk all habitat proposed for clearing using transects or systematic area searches set under the applicable state fauna survey guideline.
• Give particular attention to open ground beneath and beside retained trees, where groups commonly forage.
• Record the start and finish time, weather, observers, area searched, transect length and all detections.

Survey methodology: 2. Nest and breeding habitat inspection

Inspect retained and proposed-to-clear trees for large mud bowl nests on horizontal branches from 3 to 20 m above ground.

Treat August to March as the breeding period when planning inspections and clearing controls.

Do not climb trees or disturb nests during a standard ground survey; use an appropriately qualified person and approved method if a closer inspection is required.

Breeding season: August to March.

Nest type: Large mud bowl reinforced and lined with grass.

Nest placement: Horizontal branch, 3 to 20 m above ground.

Incubation and nestling periods: About 18 days each.

• Map each suspected Apostlebird nest and record its tree, height, condition and distance from the proposed disturbance footprint.
• Look for adults carrying nesting material or food, groups attending a nest, and repeated movements between ground foraging areas and trees.
• Use the nest information to identify habitat that should be retained and to set project specific exclusion areas under the relevant approval or fauna management plan.

Survey methodology: 3. Call and group detection

Listen for the rough, scratchy and discordant call, described as 'ch-kew ch-kew'.

Use calls as supporting evidence rather than relying on call detection alone, because the species is usually detected visually in groups on or near the ground.

Record whether the call came from retained woodland, a nest tree or an open foraging area.

• Repeat observations from different points where vegetation or terrain limits visibility.
• Do not use call playback unless it is specifically allowed by the relevant permit, approval or survey guideline.
• Record detection confidence and whether the group was seen, heard only, or associated with a nest.

Survey methodology: Minimum effort and reporting

The supplied documents do not specify a standard number of survey nights, hours, trap nights, transect length or survey area for Apostlebirds.

Set survey effort using the applicable state or territory fauna survey guideline, project approval and habitat risk, and document the basis for that effort.

Increase coverage where woodland is fragmented, trees are proposed for removal, nests are suspected, or groups are detected near the work area.

• Submit confirmed records to the relevant state or territory wildlife database.
• Provide species name, scientific name, date, location, coordinates, observer, group size, detection method, habitat, breeding evidence and photographs where available.
• Retain maps, field sheets, weather conditions, survey effort, nest records and any limitations in the project environmental file.
• Have a suitably qualified ecologist review records that may affect clearing approvals or fauna management controls.

Before habitat disturbance: Avoid and minimise habitat loss

Plan works around the species' use of woodland, open ground and nest trees. The aim is to retain functioning habitat and avoid disturbing active breeding groups wherever practicable.

Retain open dry forest and woodland near water, including mature trees used for mud nests and nearby ground foraging areas.

Avoid clearing connected patches and retain links between woodland areas used by the same group.

Retain trees with suitable horizontal branches, mud nests and surrounding vegetation where practicable.

Avoid unnecessary disturbance to farmland trees, roadside trees, orchards and other modified habitat used by Apostlebirds.

• Clearly mark retained habitat, nest trees and no-go areas before machinery enters the site.
• Keep construction compounds, access tracks, spoil and laydown areas out of retained woodland and known foraging areas where practicable.
• Use the smallest practicable clearing footprint and stage works so retained habitat remains available during construction.

Before habitat disturbance: Check approvals and plan timing

Confirm whether the project requires an EPBC Act referral or approval if the species is nationally listed or if another protected matter may be affected.

Check state and territory wildlife approvals, clearing controls and permit requirements before works begin.

In Victoria, confirm the requirements that apply to the species' state listing and the proposed clearing activity.

Plan clearing to avoid August to March where practicable, particularly where active nests or dependent young are present.

• Prepare a fauna management plan that identifies survey results, exclusion areas, spotter catcher responsibilities, stop-work triggers, release sites and reporting requirements.
• Stage clearing so the fauna spotter catcher can inspect each work area immediately before disturbance.
• Include wet weather, fire, access and unexpected fauna procedures in the work plan.

Before habitat disturbance: Prepare the site

Complete a pre-clearance inspection of all vegetation and ground habitat that may be disturbed.

Mark nest trees, retained trees, woodland edges, water-associated habitat and approved relocation areas before clearing.

Install exclusion fencing where it can protect retained habitat and direct machinery away from nests, foraging areas and release sites.

Brief machinery operators on the species' appearance, group behaviour, call and ground-foraging habits.

• Schedule the pre-clearance inspection as close as practicable to the start of works because groups may move locally and breeding activity can change.
• Confirm that the fauna spotter catcher has authority, equipment, communication access and a suitable transport and care arrangement before work starts.
• Do not use fencing to trap birds or cut off access to food, water or retained habitat.

During habitat disturbance: Daily controls

Apostlebirds may forage on the ground in groups and can move through active work areas. Clearing must therefore proceed slowly, with continuous communication between the fauna spotter catcher and machinery operators.

Inspect the work area each day before disturbance begins, including retained trees, ground foraging areas and any known nest trees.

Maintain marked exclusion zones and confirm that fencing, signs and access controls remain in place.

Use a fauna spotter catcher whenever clearing or ground disturbance could affect habitat identified in the fauna management plan.

Stop or modify work if visibility is poor, the site becomes unsafe, or the approved fauna controls cannot be maintained.

• Clear in stages from the disturbed area towards retained habitat where this is safe and consistent with the approved method.
• Keep machinery speed low enough for the spotter catcher to inspect the ground and vegetation ahead of the plant.
• Maintain direct communication between the spotter catcher, supervisor and machine operator.
• Do not allow workers to chase, crowd or deliberately flush groups.

During habitat disturbance: Fauna spotter catcher procedure

The spotter catcher should inspect ground, low vegetation, tree bases and nest trees before each clearing stage.

Apostlebirds are usually on the ground in groups, so the spotter catcher should watch for movement away from machinery and for birds sheltering in retained vegetation.

Only an appropriately authorised and trained person should capture, handle or relocate a bird.

• Pause machinery when an Apostlebird enters the clearing zone, when a group becomes separated, or when the spotter catcher loses sight of a bird.
• Allow uninjured birds to move naturally into nearby retained habitat where this is safe and consistent with the fauna management plan.
• Use capture and containment only when necessary to prevent harm, and follow the relevant permit and animal welfare requirements.
• Do not handle eggs, nests or dependent young unless the approved fauna procedure and relevant authority allow it.

During habitat disturbance: Habitat feature handling

Give priority protection to trees containing mud nests and to nearby retained woodland used for ground foraging.

Inspect trees before felling and confirm that no active Apostlebird nest or dependent young will be affected.

The supplied documents do not identify Apostlebird dependence on hollows, logs, rocks or burrows, so do not assume these features are suitable substitutes for nest trees or woodland habitat.

• Do not remove nest trees or disturb active nests unless the action is authorised and unavoidable under the project approval.
• Keep machinery, stockpiles and spoil away from retained trees and the ground areas used by groups.
• Manage watercourses and wet areas to avoid unnecessary loss of the nearby woodland habitat used by the species.
• Refer any unexpected nest or breeding activity to the project ecologist before work continues.

During habitat disturbance: Injured animals, stop work and records

Stop work and establish an exclusion area if an Apostlebird is injured, trapped, separated from dependent young, or found in the active work zone.

Have an injured bird assessed and transferred to a veterinarian or authorised wildlife carer as soon as practicable.

Record all interactions, including sightings, captures, relocations, injuries, deaths, nest findings and stop-work events.

• Notify the site supervisor and project ecologist immediately when a fauna incident occurs.
• Do not release a bird into unsuitable habitat, across a road, or into an area exposed to active machinery.
• Use a nearby retained woodland release site identified in the fauna management plan for an uninjured bird that cannot safely leave the work area.
• Record the date, time, location, condition, action taken, person responsible, release location and outcome.
• Report incidents to the relevant regulator or approval holder where required.

After habitat disturbance: Post-clearance checks

Post-clearing checks should confirm that no birds, nests or dependent young remain in the disturbed area and that retained woodland remains protected from indirect impacts.

Inspect the cleared area and retained edges after each clearing stage for injured or stranded birds, nests, eggs and dependent young.

Reinspect nearby retained trees for disturbance to mud nests and signs that groups are still using the area.

Keep exclusion fencing and habitat protection controls in place until the supervisor and ecologist confirm that the work area is safe.

• Complete a final fauna inspection before demobilising the spotter catcher from each work area.
• Escalate any active nest, injured bird or unexpected group concentration to the project ecologist.
• Repair damaged fencing, signs and tree protection immediately.

After habitat disturbance: Monitoring and reporting

Monitor retained woodland and nearby ground foraging areas where the project has removed habitat or altered access.

Give additional attention to the August to March breeding period and to areas where groups or nests were recorded before clearing.

Compare post-work observations with pre-clearance records, including group size, location and habitat use.

• Submit confirmed records and incident data to the relevant state or territory wildlife database where required.
• Report clearing, nest impacts, injuries, relocations and deaths in the project environmental report.
• Document whether exclusion zones, timing controls, release sites and rehabilitation commitments were implemented.
• Use monitoring results to adjust access, lighting, noise, vegetation management and future clearing stages.

After habitat disturbance: Offsets and residual impacts

Assess residual loss of woodland, mature nest trees and connected foraging habitat under the applicable approval and offset framework.

Do not treat relocation of an individual bird as compensation for loss of habitat or an active nest.

Maintain retained habitat and approved offset areas for the period required by the approval or management plan.

• Obtain project ecologist and approval authority advice before changing a committed offset, retention area or rehabilitation action.
• Record the area, habitat type and condition of retained and offset areas in project mapping.
• Continue weed, access and fire controls where they are required to protect retained Apostlebird habitat.

Rehabilitation actions: Restore woodland structure

Rehabilitation should rebuild open woodland habitat near water and provide connected ground foraging areas. It should also protect the trees and branches used for communal mud nests.

Revegetate cleared areas with locally indigenous species appropriate to the original open dry forest or woodland community and local soil and rainfall conditions.

Restore a mix of trees, understorey and open ground rather than creating dense planting across all areas.

Prioritise links between retained woodland patches and previously used foraging areas.

Re-establish or protect access to suitable water-associated woodland where the project has altered drainage or ground conditions.

• Use local ecological community advice to select plant species because the supplied documents do not name particular plant species used by Apostlebirds.
• Protect new plantings from grazing, vehicle movement and soil compaction until established.
• Retain existing mature trees and suitable horizontal branches wherever practicable, because the species places mud nests 3 to 20 m above ground.

Rehabilitation actions: Protect nests and habitat features

Do not remove remaining mud nests or nest trees during rehabilitation works unless authorised under the project approval.

The supplied documents do not identify a requirement for nest boxes, hollows, logs or rocks, so these should not be installed as Apostlebird substitutes without site-specific ecological advice.

Maintain open ground suitable for group foraging beneath and beside retained trees.

• Use tree protection zones around retained nest trees and avoid soil disturbance within them where practicable.
• Control weeds that reduce the open woodland structure or displace locally indigenous regeneration.
• Manage feral animal access, domestic poultry interactions and other site-specific disturbance where these affect rehabilitation outcomes.
• Apply fire management consistent with the local ecological community, approval conditions and advice from the land manager.

Rehabilitation actions: Monitor success

Monitor plant survival, woodland connectivity, ground condition, weed cover and use by Apostlebird groups.

Check for Apostlebird presence, group size, ground foraging and any mud nest construction during and after the August to March breeding period.

Use the pre-disturbance records as the baseline for comparing habitat use and group locations.

• Set success measures for survival of plantings, retention of mature trees, protection of nest trees, weed control and continued access to foraging habitat.
• Record monitoring dates, observers, areas searched, weather, group detections, nest observations and photographs.
• Repair failed plantings, damaged fencing and erosion controls, and revise management where monitoring shows that habitat is not recovering.
• Submit relevant species records to the relevant state or territory wildlife database.

Sources

• Apostlebird, BirdLife Australia: https://birdlife.org.au/bird-profiles/apostlebird/
• Apostlebird, Australian Museum: https://australian.museum/learn/animals/birds/apostlebird/