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Alpine Sheoak Skink (Cyclodomorphus praealtus)

The Alpine She-oak Skink is an endangered, medium-sized lizard restricted to alpine and sub-alpine grasslands and heathlands of the Australian Alps in New South Wales and Victoria. On development and infrastructure sites, it may be harmed by clearing, track and road construction, ski-run works, trampling, fire, weeds, feral animals and fragmentation of tussock habitat.

Conservation status

Commonwealth, EPBC Act 1999: Endangered.

New South Wales, Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016: Endangered.

Victoria, Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988: Critically endangered.

Breeding season

The Alpine Sheoak Skink is a live-bearing alpine reptile. It is active mainly from October to March, with pregnant females recorded from November to early March and births reported in mid to late summer. Avoid clearing during the breeding and birth period where practicable, and protect ground cover during winter when animals may be sheltering and less able to escape machinery.

Reproductive mode: Live-bearing.

Litter size: 2 to 9 young or embryos.

Gestation: Not recorded.

Size at birth: Not recorded.

Age at maturity: Thought to be 2 to 3 years.

Nest or egg sites: Nesting is not applicable. Birth is presumed to occur under cover, including dense grass tussocks, rocks and ground litter such as logs.

Breeding frequency: One litter per year is reported, but the available evidence is limited.

Confirm timing locally before works, because temperature, snow cover and seasonal conditions can shift the activity, breeding and winter inactivity periods in alpine habitat.

  • Mating: Mating has not been directly recorded. Captive pairing occurred in December, with chasing and biting associated with possible gravidity in early January.
  • Gravid females: Pregnant females containing 2 to 9 embryos were recorded from early November to early March. The records do not show a peak within this period.
  • Births: Births are reported in mid to late summer, corresponding approximately to January and February. Exact birth dates have not been recorded.
  • Newborns: Newborns are expected after the reported mid to late summer birth period, but juvenile emergence and the period of highest abundance are not recorded. January and February are therefore indicative only.
  • Active period: The documented activity period is October to March. The species is predominantly diurnal and may be active after dark on warm nights; daily records have sometimes continued into April.
  • Winter inactivity: The species hibernates or is cooled over winter, and captive animals have been successfully overwintered at 2°C. April to September is an indicative alpine winter sheltering period based on the documented October to March activity season, but exact dates vary with temperature and snow cover.
  • Highest clearing risk: Risk is highest during winter inactivity from April to September, when animals may remain under rocks, tussocks or ground litter and be unable to escape machinery, and during November to February when gravid females, births or newborns may be present. Ground disturbance can also harm active animals outside these periods because they use local ground cover refuges.

Identification

The Alpine She-oak Skink is a slender, medium-sized skink with smooth, overlapping scales, short limbs and a relatively short tail. It is cryptic and spends much of its time within tussock clumps, so careful inspection of ground cover is often needed.

Adults have an olive-green to reddish-brown back. Dark scale edges form thin, broken longitudinal lines, wavy stripes or occasional narrow bands. The underside is usually orange to reddish.

The species has four distinct but short limbs, each with five fingers or toes. The tail is tapered and relatively short compared with coastal she-oak skinks.

Snout to vent length: Up to 126 to 130 mm.

Total length: Around 350 mm maximum.

Limbs: Four short limbs, each with five fingers or toes.

Identification: Distinguishing features

The Alpine She-oak Skink can be separated from other Australian she-oak skinks, including Cyclodomorphus casuarinae and C. michaeli, by the number of subcaudal scales. An original tail has fewer than 60 subcaudal scales on its underside.

The third and fourth toes are sub-equal, or the third toe is slightly longer than the fourth. Confirm identifications from clear photographs or a captured animal handled under the relevant permit and animal welfare requirements.

Identification: Field signs and survey cautions

No reliable species-specific tracks, scats, calls, nests, hollows, burrows or eyeshine are described in the supplied documents. Do not treat an absence of surface signs as evidence that the species is absent.

Individuals have been observed basking on grass tussocks and sheltering beneath litter, rocks, logs and other ground debris. Search and pre-clearance work should therefore avoid unnecessary disturbance of tussock bases and ground debris, and should use an appropriately authorised fauna spotter catcher where required.

Distribution: National range

The species is endemic to the Australian Alps in New South Wales and Victoria. Its distribution is highly restricted, patchy and fragmented between alpine plateaus or 'sky islands'.

In New South Wales, the species is known from Kosciuszko National Park, particularly between Smiggin Holes and Kiandra. In Victoria, it occurs in the north-east of the state, from the Omeo Plain and Dargo High Plains south to Lankey Plain.

The species occurs in the Australian Alps IBRA Bioregion and overlaps the North East Victoria and Southern Rivers New South Wales Natural Resource Management Regions.

Distribution: Strongholds and subpopulations

Kosciuszko Plateau is a major northern area of potential and known habitat. Victorian populations occur on several southern plateaus, including alpine areas around the Omeo Plain, Dargo High Plains and Lankey Plain.

Genetic studies identified four populations on the Kosciuszko Plateau and three populations on the southern plateaus. The two regions are effectively isolated, and gene flow between populations is limited.

Distribution: Population information

Known populations: The EPBC listing advice reported approximately 10 populations across New South Wales and Victoria; later genetic work identified four Kosciuszko Plateau populations and three southern plateau populations.

Potential habitat: No more than 440 km² across the species' range, with much of that area unsuitable.

Area of occupancy: Estimated to be less than 100 km² across the range in the EPBC listing advice.

New South Wales suitable habitat: Estimated at less than 250 km².

New South Wales records: Eleven records were reported in the NSW listing determination, with most records representing single animals.

Population size and trend: Total population size, age at first breeding, longevity and reliable population trends are not known. Genetic studies found low genetic diversity and small effective population sizes.

Habitat: Vegetation and structure

The Alpine She-oak Skink depends on open alpine vegetation with a tussock or low-heath structure. Habitat is usually on flat to gently sloping ground or rolling alpine hills, often in sunny aspects.

In Victoria, records are from alpine tussock grassland, alpine heathland and alpine grassy heathland, usually above the tree line. The species also occurs in grassy areas with very sparse Snow Gums.

In New South Wales, it has been observed in tussock grassland within the Kosciuszko region. It is not known from bogs, woodland, herbfields or rocky outcrops in that region, despite surveys in those habitats.

Preferred sites are tree-less or very lightly treed and contain tussock grasses, low heath, or both. Continuous grassy areas can be important habitat.

Habitat: Elevation and site conditions

The known distribution is above 1500 m in the Australian Alps. Sites range from flat plains to rolling alpine hills and the species usually selects sunny aspects in the cold alpine climate.

Suitable habitat is disjunct within a matrix of alpine and sub-alpine vegetation types that the species is not known to use. Roads, tracks, buildings, groomed ski slopes and other infrastructure can divide otherwise suitable grassland.

Known elevation limit: Usually above 1500 m.

Typical terrain: Flat plains to rolling alpine hills, including flat to gently sloping grasslands in New South Wales.

Foraging habitat: Food

The species is largely carnivorous and feeds within or close to alpine tussock and low-heath habitat. Detailed observations of wild feeding behaviour are limited.

The diet includes small invertebrates, particularly insects and molluscs. Captive animals are generalist insect feeders.

Small lizards and snakes have also been recorded as prey. The species may consume a limited amount of plant material.

Primary prey: Small invertebrates, including insects and molluscs.

Other recorded food: Small lizards and snakes, with a possible limited amount of plant material.

Foraging habitat: Foraging areas and range

Foraging habitat is the same open tussock grassland, low heath and grassy heath used for shelter and breeding. The species may forage around tussock bases, litter and other ground debris.

Adults appear to remain in the same general area for long periods. The greatest recorded distance between sightings of one individual was about 45 m, indicating that clearing can affect an individual even when it is not detected at the immediate work point.

Breeding habitat: Breeding biology

The Alpine She-oak Skink gives birth to live young. Breeding information is limited because the species is difficult to detect and few reproductive observations are available.

Reproductive mode: Live-bearing.

Breeding period: Pregnant females have been recorded from early November to early March, suggesting summer breeding.

Embryos or young: Two to nine embryos per pregnant female.

Gestation: Not known.

Age at maturity: Not known.

Lifespan: Not known.

Breeding habitat: Breeding habitat

Breeding habitat is open alpine or sub-alpine grassland, low heath or grassy heath with tussock structure and ground debris. The habitat must remain connected enough for local movement and must retain cover around tussock clumps.

The Australian Government assessment identified the habitat as necessary for foraging, breeding and dispersal. Clearing within occupied or suitable tussock habitat can therefore affect breeding even where no animal is found during a pre-clearance search.

Sheltering habitat: Known refuges

The species shelters close to the ground in vegetation and debris rather than in documented tree hollows or large burrows. These refuges can be disturbed by earthworks, slashing, vehicle movement and trampling.

Known shelter sites include the bases of tussock clumps, leaf litter, rocks, logs and other ground debris. Individuals have been observed basking on grass tussocks before returning to cover.

The supplied documents do not give dimensions for shelter sites, burrows or refuge cavities. Retain ground cover and avoid moving rocks, logs or debris unless this is part of an approved fauna management procedure.

Sheltering habitat: Site protection

Protect intact tussock clumps and low heath around known records and suitable habitat. Use exclusion areas, discrete marking or barriers where infrastructure maintenance or construction could damage occupied habitat.

The species has limited dispersal capacity and isolated populations. Retaining connected ground cover is therefore important during access-track, road, cable, utility and building works.

Threats: Clearing and fragmentation

The main risks on project sites are the removal and fragmentation of open alpine grassland, damage to tussocks and ground cover, and indirect changes caused by weeds, feral animals, fire and pathogens.

Clearing for buildings, roads, tracks, ski runs, dams, power infrastructure and other works removes habitat and can isolate populations. Groomed ski slopes and infrastructure have fragmented known sites in New South Wales.

The Australian Government found that clearing 80.83 ha of habitat in one Kosciuszko National Park project would adversely affect habitat critical to the species. A further 132.33 ha was identified as vulnerable to indirect impacts from weeds, feral animals, increased predation, pathogens and vehicle strikes.

Limit the disturbance footprint, use existing cleared access routes where possible, fence or mark exclusion areas, and complete pre-clearance surveys and fauna management under the relevant approval conditions.

Example project impact: 213.16 ha of habitat was assessed as directly or indirectly impacted, including 80.83 ha cleared and 132.33 ha indirectly affected.

Habitat recovery: Rehabilitation after construction may take 20 years or more.

Threats: Fire and vegetation change

Wildfire can kill animals, remove cover and alter vegetation structure through subsequent succession. The species is known to retract from recently burnt areas, and frequent fire could eliminate local populations.

The 2019 to 2020 fires burnt an estimated 35 percent of known habitat in Kosciuszko National Park in one assessment. Fire planning should maintain an appropriate fire frequency and intensity for tussock and low-heath habitat.

Threats: Predators and feral herbivores

Foxes, cats, rats and dogs may prey on the species, particularly around developed alpine areas. The extent of predation has not been quantified.

Deer, feral horses, pigs and rabbits degrade habitat through grazing, trampling, digging, rooting and wallowing. Feral pigs may also prey on skinks.

Threats: Weeds, pathogens and climate change

Orange Hawkweed and exotic perennial grasses can invade and dominate sub-alpine grassland, reducing tussock habitat. Vehicle and machinery hygiene is needed to reduce weed spread.

Phytophthora cinnamomi may alter vegetation structure and condition. Nannizziop barbatae reptilian skin fungi have also been identified as a potential cause of individual mortality in the NSW conservation action plan.

Warming and altered weather may allow shrubs and heaths to move upslope into tussock grassland, increase drought pressure and reduce food and shelter. The species has little scope to move higher because it already occupies alpine plateaus.

Threats: Roads, vehicles and hydrology

Roads and tracks can remove habitat, divide populations and increase vehicle strike risk. Keep vehicles on designated routes and avoid driving across tussock grassland or known habitat.

The supplied documents identify dams as a past cause of habitat loss and identify vehicle strikes as an indirect impact in a recent project. They do not provide a species-specific hydrology threshold or a quantified response to groundwater change.

Survey methodology: 1. Habitat inspection and targeted searches

Survey for Alpine Sheoak Skink in treeless or lightly treed alpine and subalpine grassland, low heath and tussock grassland above 1500 m. The species is cryptic, has small home ranges and may shelter within tussock clumps, so survey design must combine habitat assessment with targeted searches and repeated monitoring.

Map all treeless or lightly treed areas containing tussock grasses, low heath, litter, rocks, logs and other ground debris before selecting search sites.

Prioritise flat to gently sloping, sunny areas and habitat adjoining known or potentially occupied grassland, including areas near roads, tracks, ski infrastructure and other proposed disturbance.

Search beneath and around tussock clumps, litter, rocks, logs and other ground debris, replacing each feature carefully after inspection.

Record habitat structure, ground cover, basking sites, shelter features, weed cover, grazing or trampling damage and evidence of fire.

Survey methodology: 2. Diurnal visual searches

Undertake searches during the warmer part of the day when lizards may be basking on grass tussocks or using sunny aspects.

Use slow, systematic searches through suitable tussock grassland and heath, checking basking surfaces and shelter beneath ground debris.

Do not rely on spotlighting alone, because the supplied sources describe basking and daytime sheltering behaviour but do not provide a species-specific spotlighting method.

Record the search area, transect route, start and finish time, weather, ground temperature if measured, cloud cover, wind, recent rain and fire history.

Survey methodology: 3. Repeat searches and population checks

Repeat searches where the first visit produces no records, particularly in patchy habitat or where the species may be difficult to detect.

Schedule at least some searches during the likely summer breeding period from November to March, when museum specimens included pregnant females.

For projects requiring population estimates or long-term monitoring, use annual monitoring methods that generate an estimate of the number of individuals and assess area of occupancy every 2 years, as specified in the NSW conservation action plan.

Treat a non-detection cautiously, because the species has a patchy distribution, is difficult to detect and has not been detected in some apparently suitable habitats.

Survey methodology: Minimum effort and reporting

  • Use a documented, repeatable search design that covers every mapped patch of suitable habitat within and next to the disturbance footprint.
  • Do not state that habitat is unoccupied solely because a single search finds no skinks.
  • Record every individual, photograph it where this can be done without handling, and record the location to the accuracy available.
  • Submit confirmed records and survey metadata to the relevant state wildlife database, including the NSW Wildlife Atlas where the work is in New South Wales.
  • Report the total area searched, dates, times, conditions, observers, methods, search effort, habitat searched, detections and non-detections in the project survey report.
  • Obtain advice from the relevant state threatened species authority where a project needs a formal detection or absence conclusion and no species-specific survey guideline is available in the project documents.

Before habitat disturbance: Avoid and minimise

Treat suitable Alpine Sheoak Skink habitat as potentially occupied unless adequate survey and agency advice support another conclusion. Avoid removing connected tussock grassland and heath because populations are fragmented, dispersal is limited and known sites may be separated beyond recorded adult movement distances.

  • Redesign the footprint to retain treeless or lightly treed tussock grassland, low heath, shelter features and sunny basking areas.
  • Avoid clearing continuous grassland, because large grassy areas are described as optimal habitat and disturbance can further fragment populations.
  • Retain habitat links between occupied or suitable patches wherever practicable, noting that the largest recorded distance between sightings of one adult was roughly 45 m and that populations are genetically isolated.
  • Keep roads, tracks, buildings, groomed ski slopes, laydown areas and drainage works out of known habitat wherever practicable.
  • Avoid works in recently burnt habitat until its condition and use by the species have been assessed.

Before habitat disturbance: Approvals and project controls

  • Check whether the proposed action requires referral or approval under the EPBC Act because the species is nationally listed as endangered.
  • Obtain the relevant state approvals, licences and threatened species advice before disturbing habitat or handling a skink.
  • Prepare a species-specific fauna management plan covering survey, exclusion areas, pre-clearance checks, encounter procedures, rehabilitation, monitoring and reporting.
  • Include the species in the project environmental controls and induction for operators, supervisors, ecologists and fauna spotter catchers.

Before habitat disturbance: Timing and staging

  • Plan clearing outside the summer breeding period from November to March where practicable, while recognising that adults and juveniles may be present throughout the year.
  • Stage works so that retained tussock grassland and heath remain connected and available while adjoining areas are cleared or constructed.
  • Schedule high-risk activities during periods when a trained fauna spotter catcher can be present and visibility and access are suitable for searching.
  • Avoid creating isolated strips of habitat or leaving disturbed edges exposed to weeds, feral predators, trampling or vehicle access.

Before habitat disturbance: Site preparation

  • Complete a pre-clearance survey of all suitable habitat within the disturbance area and a practical inspection of adjoining retained habitat.
  • Mark exclusion areas, occupied sites, tussock grassland, low heath, logs, rocks, litter and other shelter features before machinery enters the site.
  • Install clearly visible exclusion fencing around retained habitat and known sites where fencing will not cause additional habitat damage or obstruct fauna movement.
  • Brief the fauna spotter catcher and machinery operators on the species appearance, habitat, stop-work triggers and the approved release area.

During habitat disturbance: Daily controls and spotter catcher duties

Use active supervision during clearing and construction. The fauna spotter catcher should control the immediate work area for fauna risk, while the operator works only within the area released for that activity.

  • Inspect exclusion fencing, signage, access tracks and retained habitat before work starts each day.
  • Keep machinery, vehicles, workers and materials out of marked habitat and shelter features unless the approved method specifically requires their removal.
  • Search the next work area before mechanical disturbance and progressively release small work areas to machinery.
  • Maintain a clear communication method between the fauna spotter catcher, machine operator, supervisor and environmental officer.
  • Stop or modify work if visibility, access, weather, smoke, dust or noise prevents an effective fauna check.

During habitat disturbance: Habitat feature handling

  • Avoid disturbing tussock clumps, litter, rocks, logs and other ground debris that may provide shelter.
  • Where a marked log, rock or other shelter feature must be moved, inspect it first, move it slowly under fauna spotter catcher supervision and place it in nearby retained habitat with similar cover.
  • Do not stockpile cleared material against retained tussock grassland or heath.
  • Prevent soil, weed material, vehicles and machinery from entering retained habitat and follow hygiene controls to reduce pathogen spread.
  • Treat weed invasion, trampling by machinery and feral animal access as habitat risks requiring immediate control or escalation.

During habitat disturbance: If a skink is found

  • Stop the activity immediately and keep machinery, people and dogs away from the animal.
  • Allow the skink to move into nearby retained habitat if it can do so safely without handling.
  • If handling is necessary, use only an appropriately authorised and experienced person, minimise pursuit and handling time, and follow the project fauna handling procedure.
  • Relocate the animal only to nearby retained habitat with suitable tussock grass, low heath, shelter and basking conditions, and only where authorised by the relevant permit or agency advice.
  • Place an injured animal in a secure, clean container suitable for a lizard and arrange prompt assessment by a veterinarian or licensed wildlife carer.
  • Do not resume work until the fauna spotter catcher and environmental officer agree that the animal is clear of the work area and the control measures are adequate.

During habitat disturbance: Stop-work triggers and records

  • Stop work for any Alpine Sheoak Skink sighting within the work area, an injured animal, damage to an exclusion zone, unexpected habitat clearance or a failure of the fauna management controls.
  • Record the date, time, location, observer, activity, weather, habitat, photographs, animal condition, action taken, release location, authorisation and people notified for every encounter.
  • Record all cleared and retained habitat areas, feature relocations, fencing inspections, fauna observations, injuries, mortalities and corrective actions.
  • Escalate repeated sightings, mortality, unexpected concentrations of animals or damage to connected habitat to the project environmental officer and relevant agency contact.

After habitat disturbance: Post-clearance checks

Post-clearance work must confirm that animals have not been left in the footprint, retained habitat remains protected and indirect impacts are controlled. The species may take many years to benefit from rehabilitation, so monitoring must continue beyond construction.

  • Complete a final systematic inspection of the cleared area, retained habitat edges, material stockpiles, trenches and other fauna hazards after each staged clearing event.
  • Check that no skinks, injured fauna or shelter features remain isolated within the footprint.
  • Remove or cover open trenches, pipes and other artificial traps at the end of each shift and inspect them before work resumes.
  • Repair exclusion fencing and reinstate no-go areas immediately after construction activities change the site layout.

After habitat disturbance: Monitoring and reporting

  • Monitor retained and rehabilitated habitat for Alpine Sheoak Skink presence, habitat condition, weed spread, feral animal damage, fire effects and unauthorised disturbance.
  • Use annual population monitoring where the project or conservation plan requires a population estimate and assess area of occupancy every 2 years where applicable.
  • Compare monitoring results with the pre-disturbance survey, including records, search effort, habitat area and condition.
  • Report all records, mortalities, incidents, control failures, rehabilitation progress and corrective actions to the approval authority and relevant state wildlife database.

After habitat disturbance: Offsets and residual impacts

  • Confirm whether the approval requires offsets for residual impacts to habitat critical to the species or to an important population.
  • Do not treat rehabilitation or an offset as a substitute for avoiding and minimising clearance of occupied or suitable tussock grassland and heath.
  • Implement any approved offset, conservation payment, predator control, weed control, fire management or habitat protection requirement for the full period specified in the approval.

Rehabilitation actions: Restore habitat structure

Rehabilitation should restore the structure and shelter conditions used by Alpine Sheoak Skinks, not just produce general ground cover. Prioritise retained and connected alpine grassland and heath, with long-term control of weeds, feral animals and inappropriate fire.

  • Reinstate native tussock grassland, low heath and lightly treed structure appropriate to the local alpine site, using locally suitable native species and methods approved for the project.
  • Replace suitable logs, rocks, litter and other ground debris in retained or rehabilitated habitat to provide shelter and basking structure.
  • Avoid converting open tussock grassland to dense shrub cover, because the species depends on specific vegetation structure and has limited scope to move upslope as climate changes.
  • Keep rehabilitated patches connected to occupied or suitable habitat wherever practicable.

Rehabilitation actions: Control weeds, predators and fire impacts

  • Control orange hawkweed and other weeds before they dominate subalpine grassland, using methods that do not damage skinks or retained habitat.
  • Control foxes and feral cats where authorised and practicable, because both are identified predators of the species.
  • Reduce deer, horses, rabbits and pigs where authorised to limit grazing, trampling, digging, wallowing and other damage to tussock habitat.
  • Develop site-specific fire guidance and maintain a fire regime that does not reduce suitable habitat through inappropriate frequency or intensity.
  • Use hygiene protocols for vehicles, machinery, footwear and equipment to limit pathogen movement into Alpine Sheoak Skink habitat.

Rehabilitation actions: Measure recovery

  • Set a baseline for population observations, area of occupancy, tussock and heath condition, shelter features, weed cover, feral animal impacts and fire history before rehabilitation begins.
  • Undertake annual monitoring to estimate the number of individuals where required by the conservation action plan and assess distribution or area of occupancy every 2 years.
  • Define success by stable or improving habitat condition, retained connectivity, reduced weed and feral animal impacts, functioning shelter features and confirmed use of rehabilitated or connected habitat.
  • Review rehabilitation methods if monitoring shows declining habitat condition, loss of connectivity, repeated mortality or no recovery after the project period.

Sources